Iran
From Includipedia, the inclusionist encyclopedia
- REDIRECT Template:Sprotected2
| Image:Flag of Iran.svg |
</td>
</tr><tr> <td colspan="3" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;">Motto: Esteqlāl, āzādī, jomhūrī-ye eslāmī 1 Template:Fa icon
"Independence, freedom, Islamic Republic"</td>
</tr><tr>
<td colspan="3" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;">Anthem: Sorūd-e Mellī-e Īrān ²
</td>
</tr><tr>
<td colspan="3" style="text-align:center; padding:0.6em 0em;">
</td>
</tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><td colspan="2">Capital
(and largest city)
</td><td>Tehran
</td></tr><tr>
<th colspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle; white-space:nowrap;">Official languages</th>
<td>Persian</td>
</tr><tr>
<th colspan="2">Demonym</th>
<td>Iranian
</td>
</tr><tr>
<th colspan="2">Government</th>
<td>Islamic Republic</td>
</tr><tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">Supreme Leader</td>
<td>Ayatollah Ali Khamenei</td>
</tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">President</td>
<td>Mahmoud Ahmadinejad</td>
</tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="3">Unification</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">Unified by Cyrus the Great</td>
<td>559 BCE </td>
</tr><tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">Parthian (Arsacid) dynastic empire
(first reunification)</td>
<td>248 BCE – 224 CE </td>
</tr><tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">Sassanid
dynastic empire</td>
<td>224–651 CE </td>
</tr><tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">Safavid dynasty
(second reunification)</td>
<td>May 1502 </td>
</tr><tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">First Constitution</td>
<td>1906 </td>
</tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">Islamic Revolution</td>
<td>1979 </td>
</tr><tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="3">Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">Total</td>
<td> 1,648,195 km² (18th)
636,372 sq mi </td>
</tr><tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">Water (%)</td>
<td>0.7</td>
</tr><tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="3">Population</th>
</tr><tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">2006 (1385 AP) census</td>
<td>70,472,846³ (18th)</td>
</tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">Density</td>
<td>42/km² (158th)
109/sq mi</td>
</tr><tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td colspan="2">GDP (PPP)</td>
<td>2006 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">Total</td>
<td>$610 billion (2006)[1]
note: estimates ranges from $602 billion (2006) by IMF[2] to $735 billion (2006) by EIU[3] (19th)</td>
</tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">Per capita</td>
<td>$8,700 (2006)[1]
note: estimates ranges from $8,624 (2006) by IMF[2] to $10,494 (2006) by EIU[3] (74th)</td>
</tr><tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td colspan="2">GDP (nominal)</td>
<td>2005 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">Total</td>
<td>$212.4 billion (32nd)</td>
</tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">Per capita</td>
<td>$3,046 (92nd)</td>
</tr><tr>
<td colspan="2">Gini (1998)</td>
<td>43.0 (medium) </td>
</tr><tr>
<td colspan="2">HDI (2004)</td>
<td>0.746 (medium) (96th)</td>
</tr><tr>
<th colspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;">Currency</th>
<td>Iranian rial (ريال) (IRR) </td>
</tr><tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2">Time zone</th>
<td>IRST (UTC+3:30)</td>
</tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0em;">Summer (DST)</td>
<td>not observed (UTC+3:30)</td>
</tr><tr>
<th colspan="2">Internet TLD</th>
<td>.ir</td>
</tr><tr>
<th colspan="2">Calling code</th>
<td>+98
</td>
</tr><tr style="font-size:80%;">
<td align="right">1</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left:0em;">bookrags.com</td>
</tr><tr class="mergedrow" style="font-size:80%;">
<td align="right">2</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left:0em;">iranchamber.com</td>
</tr><tr class="mergedrow" style="font-size:80%;">
<td align="right">3</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left:0em;">Statistical Center of Iran. تغییرات جمعیت کشور طی سالهای ۱۳۳۵-۱۳۸۵ (Persian). Retrieved on 2007-05-16.</td>
</tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow" style="font-size:80%;">
<td align="right">4</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left:0em;">CIA Factbook</td>
</tr></table>
Iran, (Template:PerB, pronounced [ʔiˈɾɒn]), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran Template:PerB, pronounced [dʒomhuɾije ʔeslɒmije ʔiɾɒn]), formerly known internationally as Persia, is a Southwest Asian country located in the geographical territories of the Middle East, Southern Asia,[4], Central Asia and the Caucasus. Shi'a Islam is the state religion and Persian the official language.[5] The 18th largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km², Iran is about the size of United Kingdom, France, Spain and Germany combined. It has a population of over seventy million people. Iran borders Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan to the north; Afghanistan and Pakistan to the east; and Turkey and Iraq to the west. In addition, it borders the Persian Gulf, an important oil-producing area, Gulf of Oman, and the Caspian Sea.
Iran is one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BCE [6][7][8]. Throughout history, Iran has been of geostrategic importance because of its central location in Eurasia[9]. Iran is a founding member of the UN, NAM, OIC, OPEC, ECO, and seeks to join the SCO. The political system of Iran, based on the 1979 Constitution, comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The highest state authority is the Supreme Leader, currently Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. As a a regional power.[10], Iran occupies an important position in international energy security and world economy due to its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas.[11]The country is known for its independent stances in the global arena.
The name Iran is a cognate of Aryan, and literally means "Land of the Aryans".[12][13][14] "Land of Kindness" (سرزمين مهر) is used occasionally as an alternative name for Iran in Persian literature and Iranian media.[15][16]
[edit] Etymology
- See also: Iran naming dispute
The term Iran (ایران) in modern Persian derives from the Proto-Iranian term Aryānām first attested in Zoroastrianism's Avesta tradition.[17] Ariya- and Airiia- are also attested as an ethnic designator in Achaemenid inscriptions. The term Ērān from Middle Persian Ērān, Pahlavi ʼyrʼn, is found at the inscription that accompanies the investiture relief of Ardashir I at Naqsh-e Rustam.[18] In this inscription, the king's appellation in Middle Persian contains the term ērān (Pahlavi: ʼryʼn), while in the Parthian language inscription that accompanies it, Iran is mentioned as aryān. In Ardashir's time ērān retained this meaning, denoting the people rather than the state.
Notwithstanding this inscriptional use of ērān to refer to the Iranian peoples, the use of ērān to refer to the empire is also attested by the early Sassanid period. An inscription of Shapur I, Ardashir's son and immediate successor, apparently "includes in Ērān regions such as Armenia and the Caucasus which were not inhabited predominantly by Iranians."[19] In Kartir's inscriptions the high priest includes the same regions in his list of provinces of the antonymic Anērān.[19] Both ērān and aryān comes from the Proto-Iranian term Aryānām, (Land) of the (Iranian) Aryas. The word and concept of Airyanem Vaejah is present in the name of the country Iran (Lit. Land of the Aryans) where Iran (Ērān), is modern-Persian of the word Aryānā.
Since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the official name of the country is "Islamic Republic of Iran."
In the outside world the official name of Iran from 6th century BC until 1935 was Persia. In this year Reza Shah asked International community to call this country by its native name "Iran". A few years later some Persian scholars protested the government that changing the name has separated the country from its past so in 1959 Mohammad Reza Shah announced both terms can be used interchangably. Now both terms are common but "Iran" mostly in modern political context and "Persia" in cultural and historical context.
[edit] History
[edit] Early history and the Median and Achaemenian Empires (3200 BCE – 330 BCE)
- See also: Persian Empire
Dozens of pre-historic sites across the Iranian plateau point to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the 4th millennium BCE[6][7][8], centuries before the earliest civilizations arose in nearby Mesopotamia.[20]
The Indo-Iranian culture probably originated in Central Asia. The Andronovo culture is strongly suggested as the candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture ca. 2000 BCE. Proto-Iranians first emerged following the separation of Indo-Iranians, and are traced to the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex, a Bronze Age culture of Central Asia.[21] Aryan, (Proto-Iranian) tribes arrived in the Iranian plateau in the third and second millennium BCE, probably in more than one wave of emigration. Further separation (due to migration) of Proto-Iranians, into an "Eastern" and a "Western" group, is attested in the form of Avestan, an Eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of Zoroastrian Avesta. And Old Persian, which appears primarily in the inscriptions, clay tablets, seals of the Achaemenid era (c. 600 BCE to 300 BCE). Examples of Old Persian have been found in present-day Iran, Iraq, Turkey and Egypt.
Nomadic Iranian tribes settled across the Iranian plateau and by the 1st millennium BCE, Medes, Persians, Bactrians and Parthians populated the western part, while Cimmerians, Sarmatians and Alans populated the steppes north of the Black Sea. The Iranian Pashtuns and Baloch began to settle on the eastern edge, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern India and in to what is now Balochistan. Others, such as the Scythian tribes spread as far west as the Balkans and as far east as Xinjiang.
The establishing of the Median dynasty (728–550 BCE) culminated in the first Iranian Empire. The Medes are credited with the foundation of Iran as a nation and empire, the largest of its day, until Cyrus the Great established a unified empire of the Medes and Persians leading to the Achaemenid Empire (648–330 BCE), and further unification between peoples and cultures. After Cyrus's death, his son Cambyses continued his father's work of conquest, making significant gains in Egypt. A power struggle followed Cambyses' death and, despite his tenuous connection to the royal line, Darius was declared king (ruled 522–486 BCE). He was to be arguably the greatest of the ancient Persian rulers.
Under Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great, the Persian Empire eventually became the largest and most powerful empire in human history up until that point.[22] The borders of the Persian empire stretched from the Indus and Oxus Rivers in the East to the Mediterranean Sea in the West, extending through Anatolia (modern day Turkey) and Egypt. In 499BCE Athens lent support to a revolt in Miletus which resulted in the sacking of Sardis. This led to an Achaemenid campaign against Greece known as the Greco-Persian Wars which lasted the first half of the 5th century BC. During the Greco-Persian wars Persia conquered Thrace, Macedonia, then most of the Greek mainland, and razed Athens in 480BCE. But after a string of Greek victories the Persians were forced to withdraw. Fighting ended with the peace of Callias in 449BCE.
The Achaemenid's greatest achievement was the empire itself. The rules and ethics emanating from Zorasters teachings were strictly followed by the Achaemenids who introduced and adopted policies based on human rights, equality and banning of slavery. Zoroastrianism spread unimposed during the time of the Achaemenids and through contacts with the exiled Jewish people in Babylon freed by Cyrus, Zoroastrian concepts further propagated and influenced into other Abrahamic religions. The Golden Age of Athens marked by Aristotle, Plato and Socrates also came about during the Achaemenid period while their contacts with Persia and the Near East abounded. The peace, tranquility, security and prosperity that were afforded to the people of the Near East and Southeastern Europe proved to be a rare historical occurrence, an unparalleled period where commerce prospered, and the standard of living for all people of the region improved.[23]
Alexander of Macedon invaded Achaemenid territory in 334 BCE, defeating the last Achaemenid Emperor Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE. He left the annexed territory in 328-327.In each of the former Achaemenid territories he installed his own officers as caretakers, which led to friction and ultimately to the partitioning of the former empire after Alexander's death. A reunification would not occur until 700 years later, under the Sassanids (see below). Unlike the diadochic Seleucids and the succeeding Arsacids, who used a vassalary system, the Sassanids — like the Achaemenids — had a system of governors (MP: shahrab) personally appointed by the Emperor and directed by the central government. The new empire led by Alexander became the first, of other, later, foreign ruled Iranian empires that came to promote a Persianate society.
[edit] Parthian and Sassanid Empires (248 BCE – 651 CE)
- See also: Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanians, Roman-Persian Wars, and Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanids
Parthia was led by the Arsacid dynasty (اشکانیان Ashkâniân), who reunited and ruled over the Iranian plateau, after defeating the Greek Seleucid Empire, beginning in the late third century BCE, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 150 BCE and 224 CE. These were the third native dynasty of ancient Iran (Persia) and lasted five centuries. After the conquests of Media, Assyria, Babylonia and Elam, the Parthians had to organize their empire. The former elites of these countries were Greek, and the new rulers had to adapt to their customs if they wanted their rule to last. As a result, the cities retained their ancient rights and civil administrations remained more or less undisturbed.
Parthia was the arch-enemy of the Roman Empire in the east, limiting Rome's expansion beyond Cappadocia (central Anatolia). By using a heavily-armed and armored cataphract cavalry, and lightly armed but highly-mobile mounted archers, the Parthians "held their own against Rome for almost 300 years".[24] Rome's acclaimed general Mark Antony led a disastrous campaign against the Parthians in 36 BCE in which he lost 32,000 men. By the time of Roman emperor Augustus, Rome and Parthia were settling some of their differences through diplomacy. By this time, Parthia had acquired an assortment of golden eagles, the cherished standards of Rome's legions, captured from Mark Antony, and Crassus, who suffered "a disastrous defeat" at Carrhae in 53 BCE.[25]
The end of the Parthian Empire came in 224 CE, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by Ardashir I, one of the empire's vassals. Ardashir I then went on to create the Sassanid Empire. Soon he started reforming the country both economically and militarily.
The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, referring to it as Erânshahr or Iranshahr, Image:Eranshahr.svg , "Dominion of the Aryans", i.e. of Iranians), with their capital at Ctesiphon.[26] The Romans suffered repeated losses particularly by Ardashir I, Shapur I, and Shapur II.[27] During their reign, Sassanid battles with the Roman Empire caused such pessimism in Rome that the historian Cassius Dio wrote:
| “ |
Here was a source of great fear to us. So formidable does the Sassanid king seem to our eastern legions, that some are liable to go over to him, and others are unwilling to fight at all. | ” |
In 632AD raiders from the Arab peninsula began attacking the Sassanid Empire Persia was defeated in the Battle of al-Qâdisiyah, paving way for the Islamic conquest of Persia.
During Parthian, and later Sassanid era, trade on the Silk Road was a significant factor in the development of the great civilizations of China, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Indian subcontinent, and Rome, and helped to lay the foundations for the modern world. Parthian remains display classically Greek influences in some instances and retain their oriental mode in others, a clear expression of "the cultural diversity that characterized Parthian art and life".[29] The Parthians were innovators of many architecture designs such as that of Ctesiphon, which bears resemblance to, and might have influenced, European Romanesque architecture.[30][31] Under the Sassanids, Persia expanded relations with China, the arts, music, and architecture greatly flourished, and centers such as the School of Nisibis and Academy of Gundishapur became world renowned centers of science and scholarship.
[edit] From the fall of the Sassanid Dynasty to the Safavid Empire (652–1501 CE)
After the Islamic conquest of Persia, Persia was annexed into the Arab Umayyad Caliphate. But the Islamization of Iran was to yield deep transformations within the cultural, scientific, and political structure of Iran's society: The blossoming of Persian literature, philosophy, medicine and art became major elements of the newly-forming Muslim civilization. Culturally, politically, and religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance such as the culmination of Persia causing the "Islamic Golden Age".",[32] contributed to Persia emerging as what culminated into the "Islamic Golden Age".
It was the Persian general Abu Moslem, who expelled the Umayyads from Damascus and helped the Abbasid caliphs to conquer Baghdad. The Abbasid caliphs frequently chose their "wazirs" (viziers) among Persians, and Persian governors acquired a certain amount of local autonomy. Thus in 822 CE, the governor of Khorasan, Tahir, proclaimed his independence and founded a new Persian dynasty of Tahirids. And by the Samanid era, Persia's efforts to regain its independence had been well solidified.[33]
Attempts of Arabization thus never succeeded in Iran, and movements such as the Shuubiyah became catalysts for Persians to regain their independence in their relations with the Arab invaders. The cultural revival of the post-Abbasid period led to a resurfacing of Persian national identity. The resulting cultural movement reached its peak during the ninth and tenth centuries. The most notable effect of the movement was the continuation of the Persian language, the language of the Persians and the official language of Iran to the present day. Ferdowsi, Iran's greatest epic poet, is regarded today as the most important figure in maintaining the Persian language.
After an interval of silence Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam. Iranian philosophy after the Islamic conquest, is characterized by different interactions with the Old Iranian philosophy, the Greek philosophy and with the development of Islamic philosophy. The Illumination School and the Transcendent Philosophy are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of that era in Persia.
The movement continued well into the eleventh century, when Mahmud-a Ghaznavi founded a vast empire, with its capital at Isfahan and Ghazna. Their successors, the Seljuks, asserted their domination from the Mediterranean Sea to Central Asia. As with their predecessors, the divan of the empire was in the hands of Persian viziers, who founded the Nizamiyya. During this period, hundreds of scholars and scientists vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European science during the Renaissance.[34]
In 1218, the eastern Khwarazmid provinces of Transoxiana and Khorasan suffered a devastating invasion by Genghis Khan. During this period more than half of Persia's population were killed,[35] turning the streets of Persian cities like Neishabur into "rivers of blood", as the severed heads of men, women, and children were "neatly stacked into carefully constructed pyramids around which the carcasses of the city's dogs and cats were placed".[36] Between 1220 and 1260, the total population of Persia had dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass extermination and famine.[37]
In a letter to King Louis IX of France, Holaku, one of the Genghis Khan's grandsons, alone took responsibility for 200,000 deaths in his raids of Persia and the Caliphate.[38] He was followed by yet another conqueror, Tamerlane, who established his capital in Samarkand.[39] The waves of devastation prevented many cities such as Neishabur from reaching their pre-invasion population levels until the twentieth century, eight centuries later.[40]
But both Hulagu, Timur, and their successors soon came to adopt the ways and customs of that which they had conquered, choosing to surround themselves with a culture that was distinctively Persian.[41]
[edit] Early modern Iran: Safavids, Afshars, Zands and Qajars (1501–1920)
- See also: Russo-Persian Wars, Anglo-Persian War, and Turko-Persian War
Persia's first encompassing Shi'a Islamic state was established under the Safavid dynasty in 1501 by Shah Ismail I. The Safavid dynasty soon became a major political power and promoted the flow of bilateral state contacts. The Safavid peak was during the rule of "Shah Abbas The Great".[42] The Shah swiftly moved to defeat the Uzbeks, Ottomans, and Portuguese, bringing a flow of prosperity into Iranian cities. The Safavids moved their capital from Tabriz to Qazvin and then to Isfahan where their patronage for the arts propelled Persia into one of its most aesthetically productive eras. Under their rule, the state became highly centralized, the first attempts to modernize the military were made, and even a distinct style of architecture developed.
The defeat of Shah Sultan Hossein by Afghan rebels marked the start of the downfall of the Safavid era in 1722. One year later the last Safavid monarch lost his throne in 1735, Nader Shah successfully drove out the Afghan rebels from Isfahan and established the Afsharid dynasty. He then staged an incursion into India in 1738 securing the Peacock throne, Koh-i-Noor, and Darya-ye Noor among other royal treasures. His rule did not last long however, and he was assassinated in 1747. The Mashhad based Afshar dynasty was succeeded by the Zand dynasty in 1750, founded by Karim Khan, who established his capital at Shiraz. His rule brought a period of relative peace and renewed prosperity.
The Zand dynasty lasted three generations, until Aga Muhammad Khan executed Lotf Ali Khan, and founded his new capital in Tehran, marking the dawn of the Qajar dynasty in 1794. The capable Qajar chancellor Amir Kabir established Iran's first modern college system, among other modernizing reforms. Mohammad Khan Qajars successors however gradually transformed Iran into an arena for the rising colonial powers of Imperial Russia and the British Empire, which wielded great political influence in Tehran under the subsequent Qajarid kings. Yet in spite of The Great Game, Iran managed to maintain her sovereignty and was never colonized, unlike neighboring states in the region. Persia suffered several wars with Imperial Russia during the Qajar era, resulting in Persia losing almost half of its territories to Imperial Russia and the British Empire via the treaties of Gulistan, Turkmenchay, and Akhal. Repeated foreign intervention and a corrupt and weakened Qajar rule led to various protests, which by the end of the Qajar period resulted in Persia's constitutional revolution establishing the nation's first parliament in 1906, within a constitutional monarchy.
[edit] From the Pahlavi era to the Iranian Revolution (1921–1979)
With the rise of modernization and encroachment of stronger Western powers in the late nineteenth century came the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1911. Reformers hoped the constitution would strengthen Iran against Imperial Russia and Britain by centralizing and modernizing it. Ultimately the constitution became law, but its provisions were seldom followed during most of its history.
In 1921, an army officer Reza Khan of Mazandarani and Persian descent (known as Reza Shah after assuming the throne) staged a coup against the weakened Qajar dynasty. An autocrat and supporter of modernization, Reza Shah initiated the development of modern industry, railroads, and establishment of a national education system. Reza Shah sought to balance the influence of Russia and Britain by seeking out assistance and technology from European powers traditionally not involved in Iranian affairs, but when World War II started his closeness to Germany alarmed allied powers Russia and Britain, Germany's enemies.
In summer of 1941 Britain and the USSR invaded Iran to prevent Iran from allying with the Axis powers. The Allies occupied Iran, securing a supply line to Russia, Iran's petroleum infrastructure, and forced the Shah to abdicate in favor of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In 1951, a nationalist politician, Dr. Mohammed Mossadegh rose to prominence in Iran and was elected Prime Minister. As Prime Minister, Mossadegh became enormously popular in Iran by nationalizing the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later British Petroleum, BP) which controlled the country's oil reserves. In response, Britain embargoed Iranian oil and began plotting to depose Mossadegh. Members of the British Intelligence Service invited the United States to join them, convincing U.S. President Eisenhower that Mossadegh was reliant on the Tudeh (Communist) Party to stay in power. In 1953, President Eisenhower authorized Operation Ajax, and the CIA took the lead in overthrowing Mossadegh and supporting a U.S.-friendly monarch; and for which the U.S. Government apologized in 2000.[43]
The CIA faced many setbacks, but the covert operation soon went into full swing, conducted from the U.S. Embassy in Tehran under the leadership of Kermit Roosevelt, Jr. Iranians were hired to protest Mossadegh and fight pro-Mossadegh demonstrators. Anti- and pro-monarchy protestors violently clashed in the streets, leaving almost three hundred dead. The operation was successful in triggering a coup, and within days, pro-Shah tanks stormed the capital and bombarded the Prime Minister's residence. Mossadegh surrendered, and was arrested on 19 August 1953. He was tried for treason, and sentenced to three years in prison.
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi returned to power greatly strengthened and his rule became increasingly autocratic in the following years. With strong support from the U.S. and UK, the Shah further modernized Iranian industry, but simultaneously crushed all forms of political opposition with his intelligence agency, SAVAK. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became an active critic of the Shah's White Revolution and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini, who was popular in religious circles, was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The Shah was persuaded to send him into exile by General Hassan Pakravan. Khomeini was sent first to Turkey, then to Iraq and finally to France. While in exile, he continued to denounce the Shah.
[edit] Iranian Revolution and Iran-Iraq War (1979–1988)
The Iranian Revolution (also known as the Islamic Revolution)[44][45][46] transformed Iran from a monarchy under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the leader of the revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic.[47]
The revolution began in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations against the Shah.[48] After strikes and demonstrations paralyzed the country, the Shah fled the country in January 1979. On February 1, 1979, Ayatollah Khomeini returned from exile to Tehran, enthusiastically greeted by millions of Iranians.[49] The Pahlavi dynasty collapsed ten days later on February 11 when Iran's military declared itself "neutral" after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on April 1, 1979 when Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so.[50] In December 1979 the country approved a theocratic constitution, whereby Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country. The speed and success of the revolution surprised many throughout the world,[51] as it had not been precipitated by a military defeat, a financial crisis, or a peasant rebellion.[52] It produced profound change at great speed.[53] It overthrew a regime thought to be heavily protected by a lavishly financed army and security services.[54][55] And it replaced a monarchy with a theocracy based on Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists (or velayat-e faqih). Although both nationalists and Marxists joined with Islamic traditionalists to overthrow the Shah, it ultimately resulted in an Islamic Republic Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.[56]
Iran's relations with the United States became deeply antagonistic during the revolution. On November 4 1979, Iranian students seized US embassy personnel, labeling the embassy a "den of spies."[57] They accused its personnel of being CIA agents plotting to overthrow the revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to Mohammad Mossadegh in 1953. While the student ringleaders had not asked for permission from Khomeini to seize the embassy, Khomeini nonetheless supported the embassy takeover after hearing of its success.[58] While most of the female and African American hostages were released within the first months,[59] the remaining fifty-two hostages were held for 444 days. This is often considered a violation of the long-standing principle of international law that diplomats are immune from arrest (diplomatic immunity). The students demanded the handover of the Shah in exchange for the hostages, and following the Shah's death in the summer of 1980, that the hostages be put on trial for espionage. Subsequently attempts by the Jimmy Carter administration to negotiate or rescue were unsuccessful until January 1981 when the Algiers declaration was agreed upon. The U.S. promised (among other things) in the accord to release Iranian assets that had been frozen, but as of 2007 those assets still remain frozen.[citation needed]
Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein decided to take advantage of what he perceived to be disorder in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and its unpopularity with Western governments. The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution, and with the Shah ousted, Hussein had ambitions to position himself as the new strong man of the Middle East. He also sought to expand Iraq's access to the Persian Gulf by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was Khuzestan which not only boasted a substantial Arab population, but rich oil fields as well. On the unilateral behalf of the United Arab Emirates, the islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs became objectives as well. With these ambitions in mind, Hussein planned a full-scale assault on Iran, boasting that his forces could reach the capital within three days. On September 22, 1980 the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the Iran-Iraq War. The attack took revolutionary Iran completely by surprise.
Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations.
Tens of thousands of Iranian civilians and military personnel were killed when Iraq used chemical weapons in its warfare. Iraq was financially backed by Egypt, the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact states, the United States (beginning in 1983), France, the United Kingdom, Germany, Brazil, and the People's Republic of China (which also sold weapons to Iran).
There were more than 100,000 Iranian victims[61] of Iraq's chemical weapons during the eight-year war. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian human wave attacks; these agencies unanimously confirmed that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.[62][63][64][65]
- See also: History of the Islamic Republic of Iran
[edit] Government and politics
The political system of the Islamic Republic is based on the 1979 Constitution. The system comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The Supreme Leader of Iran is responsible for delineation and supervision of "the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran". The Supreme Leader is Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power to declare war. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of the twelve members of the Council of Guardians are appointed by the Supreme Leader. The Assembly of Experts elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.[66] The Assembly of Experts is responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader in the performance of legal duties.
After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President of Iran as the highest state authority. The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years. Presidential candidates must be approved by the Council of Guardians prior to running in order to ensure their allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution. The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters. The President appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature. Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty-one ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature. Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence. Iran's current president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, was elected in a run-off poll in the 2005 presidential elections. His term expires in 2009.
The current legislature of Iran is a unicameral body. Before the Iranian Revolution, the legislature was bicameral, but the upper house was removed under the new constitution. The Majles-e Shura-ye Eslami (Islamic Consultative Assembly) comprises 290 members elected for four-year terms. The Majlis drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Council of Guardians. The Council of Guardians comprises twelve jurists including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. The others are elected by the Parliament from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the Judiciary. The Council interprets the constitution and may veto Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law), it is referred back to Parliament for revision. In a controversial exercise of its authority, the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran's constitution to veto parliamentary candidates.
The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.
The Supreme Leader appoints the head of Iran's Judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay people. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.
The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections, the Council of Guardians determines candidates' eligibility. The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time. As all of their meetings and notes are strictly confidential, the Assembly has never been publicly known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.
Finally, Local City Councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. According to article seven of Iran's Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are "decision-making and administrative organs of the State". This section of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local council elections were held across the country. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying the social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies; planning and co-ordinating national participation in the implementation of social, economic, constructive, cultural, educational and other welfare affairs.
Iran's foreign relations are based on two strategic principles: eliminating outside influences in the region and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and non-aligned countries. Iran maintains diplomatic relations with almost every member of the United Nations, except for Israel, which Iran does not recognize, and the United States since the Iranian Revolution. [67] The United Nations Security Council imposed international sanctions on Iran in December 2006 for not suspending its uranium enrichment programme having been instructed to do so after being assessed as failing to meet Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty safeguard obligations. Despite the U.N. security council resolutions, Iran has in practice faced a wide variety of U.S. imposed international sanctions since 1979.[68]
[edit] Provinces and counties
Iran is divided into 30 provinces (ostān), each governed by an appointed governor (استاندار, ostāndār). The provinces are divided into counties (shahrestān), and subdivided into districts (bakhsh) and sub-districts (dehestān).
The map does not show the southern islands of Hormozgan (#20 listed below):
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[edit] Major cities
Iran has one of the highest urban-growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002 the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.[69] The United Nations predicts that by 2030 the urban population will form 80% of the overall population.[citation needed] Most of the internal migrants have settled near the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahvaz, and Qom. The listed populations are from the 2006/2007 (1385 AP) census.[70]
Tehran (population 7,705,036) Tehran is the capital and largest city of Iran and like many big cities, suffers from severe air pollution. Tehran is the hub of the country's communication and transport network. The city has numerous large museums, art centers, palace complexes and cultural centers and host 45% of Iran's industries.
Mashhad (population 2,410,800) Mashhad (also spelt Mashad, literally "The place of martyrdom"), is located 850 kilometers (500 miles) east of Tehran, and is one of the holiest Shi'a cities in the world as it is the site of the shrine of Imam Reza, 8th Shia Imam. It is the second largest city with a population of 2.8 million at the center of the province of Razavi Khorasan. It's the center of tourism in Iran and between 15 and 20 million pilgrims go to the Imam Reza's shrine every year.[71][72]
Isfahan (population 1,583,609) Isfahan or Eşfahān, located about 340 km south of Tehran, is the capital of Isfahan Province and Iran's third largest city.
The Naghsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The city also contains a wide variety of Islamic architectural sites ranging from the eleventh to the nineteenth century.
Tabriz (population 1,378,935) Tabriz is the largest city in north-western Iran and is the capital of East Azarbaijan Province. Tabriz is situated north of the volcanic cone of Sahand south of the Eynali mountain.
Karaj (population 1,377,450) Karaj is located in Tehran province and is situated 20 km west of Tehran, at the foot of Alborz mountains, however the city is increasingly becoming an extension of the metropolitan Tehran.
Shiraz (population 1,204,882) Shiraz is the capital of Fārs Province and is located in the foothills of the Zagros Mountains. Shiraz is known as the city of poetry, wine and carpet production and flowers (such as roses). It is also famous for its importance in the history of Iran. It has a moderate climate and has been a regional trade center for more than a thousand years.
Ahvaz (population 969,843) The city of Ahvaz, is the capital of the Iranian province of Khūzestān. It is built on the banks of the Karun River and is situated in the middle of Khūzestān Province. The city has an average elevation of 20 meters above sea level.
Qom (population 951,918) Qom (also known as Q'um or Kom) lies Template:Convert by road south-west of Tehran and is the capital of Qom Province and is built on the banks of the Qom (River) and is considered to be a holy city in Shi`a Islam, as it is the site of the shrine of Fatema Mæ'sume, sister of Imam `Ali ibn Musa Rida (Persian Imam Reza, 789–816 CE). The city is the largest center for Shi'a scholarship in the world, and is a significant destination of pilgrimage.
[edit] Geography and climate
- See also: Agriculture in Iran and Wildlife of Iran
Iran is the eighteenth largest country in the world after Libya and before Mongolia;[73] Its area roughly equals the size of the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany combined, about one-sixth the size of the United States or slightly smaller, in land mass, than the state of Alaska.