House of Habsburg

From Includipedia, the inclusionist encyclopedia

Habsburg (commonly anglicised to "Hapsburg") and the successor family, Habsburg-Lorraine, were important ruling houses of Europe and are best known as the ruling House of Spain, when it was the only European great power, but perhaps even more so as the ruling Houses of Austria (and the Austrian Empire and its successors) where the dynasty reigned for over six centuries.

Aside from inherited dignities and lands, the dynasty's members were frequently elected to be the "Emperor of the Romans", who nominally led the far flung, fragmented and factional states of the Holy Roman Empire, including the roughly 1800 states of the Germanies.

Their principal roles were as:

• German Kings (several centuries to 1806), mostly also as
• Holy Roman Emperors, and
• Rulers of Austria (as Dukes 1282–1453, Archdukes 1453–1804, and Emperors 1804–1918),
• Kings of Bohemia (1306, 1437–1457 1526–1918),
• Kings of Hungary (1437–1439, 1445–1457, 1526–1918),
• Kings of Croatia (1437–1439, 1445–1457, 1527–1918),
• Kings of Spain (1516–1700),
• Kings of Portugal (1580–1640),
• Kings of Galizia and Lodomeria (1772–1918), and
• Grand Princes of Transylvania (1690–1918).
• Grand Dukes of Tuscany (1737–1801; 1814–1860).
• Archdukes of Austria-Este {1771}.

Other crowns held briefly by the House included:

• King-consort of England (1554–1558)
• Dukes of Parma (1814–1847)
• Dukes of Modena (1814–1859)
• Emperor of Mexico (1864–1867)

Numerous other titles were attached to the crowns listed above.

[edit] A brief history of the House of Habsburg

[edit] From Counts of Habsburg to Roman Emperors

The name is derived from the Swiss German Habichtsburg (Hawk Castle), the family seat in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries at Habsburg in the former duchy of Swabia in present-day Switzerland (Switzerland did not exist then in its present form, and the Swiss lands were part of the mainly Germanic Holy Roman Empire). From southwestern Germany (mainly Alsace, Breisgau, Aargau and Thurgau) the family extended its influence and holdings to the southeastern reaches of the Holy Roman Empire, roughly today's Austria (1278–1382). Within only two or three generations, the Habsburgs had managed to secure an initially intermittent grasp on the imperial throne that would last for centuries (1273–1291, 1298–1308, 1438–1740, and 1745–1806).

By marrying Mary, heiress of Burgundy, Maximilian I acquired control of the low countries. His son Philip the Handsome married Juana, heiress of Spain, so that Philip's son Charles V inherited Spain, Southern Italy, Austria and the Low Countries. In 1580 Charles' son Philip II inherited Portugal and its colonies.

Under Maximilian II, the Habsburgs first acquired the land upon which would later be erected the Schönbrunn Palace, the Habsburgs' summer palace in Vienna and one of the most enduring symbols of the dynasty.

[edit] Division of the House: Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs

After the April 21, 1521 assignment of the Austrian lands to Ferdinand I from his brother Emperor Charles V (also King Charles I of Spain) (1516–1556), the dynasty split into one Austrian and one Spanish branch. The Austrian Habsburgs held (after 1556) the title of Holy Roman Emperor, as well as the Habsburg Hereditary Lands and the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, while the Spanish Habsburgs ruled over the Spanish kingdoms, the Netherlands, the Habsburgs' Italian possessions, and, for a time, Portugal. Hungary, nominally under Habsburg kingship from 1526 but mostly under Ottoman Turkish occupation for 150 years, was reconquered in 1683–1699.

The Spanish Habsburgs died out in 1700 (prompting the War of the Spanish Succession), as did the Austrian Habsburgs in 1740 (prompting the War of the Austrian Succession). However, the heiress of the last Austrian Habsburg (Maria Theresa) had married Francis Stephan, Duke of Lorraine, (both of them were great-grandchildren of Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand III, but from different empresses) and their descendants carried on the Habsburg tradition from Vienna under the dynastic name Habsburg-Lorraine. (It is often speculated that extensive intra-family marriages within both lines contributed to their extinctions, but there were few such marriages in the Austrian line. Smallpox killing young heirs was a greater cause.)

[edit] House of Habsburg-Lorraine: the Austrian Empire

On August 6 1806 the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved under the French Emperor Napoleon I's reorganisation of Germany. However, in anticipation of the loss of his title of Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria (as Francis I, thereof) on August 11, 1804, three months after Napoleon had declared himself Emperor of the French on May 18, 1804.

Emperor Francis I of Austria used the official great title: "We, Francis the First, by the grace of God Emperor of Austria; King of Jerusalem, Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia and Lodomeria; Archduke of Austria; Duke of Lorraine, Salzburg, Würzburg, Franconia, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola; Grand Duke of Cracow; Grand Prince of Transylvania; Margrave of Moravia; Duke of Sandomir, Masovia, Lublin, Upper and Lower Silesia, Auschwitz and Zator, Teschen, and Friule; Prince of Berchtesgaden and Mergentheim; Princely Count of Habsburg, Gorizia, and Gradisca and of the Tyrol; and Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia and Istria".

Under the terms of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 effective autonomy was given to Hungary (see Austria-Hungary). Under this arrangement, the Hungarians referred to their ruler as king and never emperor. This prevailed until the Habsburgs' deposition from both Austria and Hungary in 1918 following defeat in World War I.

On November 11 1918, with his empire collapsing around him, the last Habsburg ruler, Charles I (who also reigned as Charles IV of Hungary) issued a proclamation recognizing Austria's right to determine the future of the state and renouncing any role in state affairs. Two days later, he issued a separate proclamation for Hungary. Even though he did not officially abdicate, this is considered the end of the Habsburg dynasty. In 1919, the new republican Austrian government subsequently passed a law banishing the Habsburgs from Austrian territory until they renounced all intentions of regaining the throne and accepted the status of private citizens. Charles made several attempts to regain the throne of Hungary, and in 1921 the Hungarian government passed a law which revoked Charles' rights and dethroned the Habsburgs.

The Habsburgs did not formally abandon any hope of returning power until Otto von Habsburg, Emperor Charles' eldest son, renounced all claims to the throne. He is still the head of the house of Habsburg today.

The dynasty's motto is "Let others wage wars, but you, happy Austria, shall marry", which indicates the talent of the Habsburgs to have their progeny intermarry into other royal houses, as to make alliances. Empress Maria Theresa is recognised quite notably for it and is sometimes referred to as the 'Great-Grandmother of Europe'.

[edit] Family tree

This family tree only includes male scions of the direct House of Habsburg who survived to adulthood. Image:Habsburg Family Tree.jpg

[edit] Main line

Before Rudolph rose to German king, the Habsburgs were Counts in what is today southwestern Germany and Switzerland.

[edit] Ancestors

• Guntram the Rich (ca. 930–985 / 990) Father of:
• Lanzelin of Altenburg (d. 991). Besides Radbot, he had sons named Rudolph I, Wernher, and Landolf.

[edit] Counts of Habsburg

• Radbot of Klettgau, built the Habsburg castle (ca. 985–1035). Besides Werner I, he had two other sons: Otto I, who would become Count of Sundgau in the Alsace, and Albrecht I.
• Werner I, Count of Habsburg (1025 / 1030–1096). Besides Otto II, there was another son, Albert II, who was reeve of Muri from 1111–1141 after the death of Otto II.
• Otto II of Habsburg; first to name himself as "of Habsburg" (d. 1111) Father of:
• Werner II of Habsburg (around 1135; d. 1167) Father of:
• Albrecht III of Habsburg (the Rich), d. 1199. Under him, the Habsburg territories expanded to cover most of what is today the German-speaking part of Switzerland. Father of:
• Rudolph II of Habsburg (d. 1232) Father of:
• Albrecht IV of Habsburg, (d. 1239 / 1240); father of Rudolph IV of Habsburg, who would later become king Rudolph I of Germany. Between Albrecht IV and his brother Rudolph III, the Habsburg properties were split, with Albrecht keeping the Aargau and the western parts, the eastern parts going to Rudolph III.

[edit] German kings

• Rudolph I was king of Germany (an elective position) from 1273–1291.

[edit] Dukes of Austria

In the late Middle Ages, when the Habsburgs expanded their territories in the east, they often ruled as dukes of the Duchy of Austria which covered only what is today Lower Austria and the eastern part of Upper Austria. The Habsburg possessions also included Styria, and then expanded west to include Carinthia and Carniola in 1335 and Tyrol in 1363. Their original scattered possessions in the southern Alsace, south-western Germany and Vorarlberg were collectively known as Further Austria. The Habsburg dukes gradually lost their homelands south of the Rhine and Lake Constance to the expanding Old Swiss Confederacy. Unless mentioned explicitly, the dukes of Austria also ruled over Further Austria until 1379, after that year, Further Austria was ruled by the Princely Count of Tyrol. Names in italics designate dukes who never actually ruled.

• Rudolph II, son of Rudolph I, duke of Austria and Styria together with his brother 1282–1283, was dispossessed by his brother, who eventually would be murdered by one of Rudolph's sons.
• Albert I (Albrecht I), son of Rudolph I and brother of the above, duke from 1282–1308; was Holy Roman Emperor from 1298–1308. See also below.
• Rudolph III, oldest son of Lenihan I, designated duke of Austria and Styria 1298–1307
• Frederick the Handsome (Friedrich der Schöne), brother of Rudolph III. Duke of Austria and Styria (with his brother Leopold I) from 1308–1330; officially co-regent of emperor Louis IV since 1325, but never ruled.
• Leopold I, brother of the above, duke of Austria and Styria from 1308–1326.
• Albert II (Albrecht II), brother of the above, duke of Vorderösterreich from 1326–1358, duke of Austria and Styria 1330–1358, duke of Carinthia after 1335.
• Otto the Jolly (der Fröhliche), brother of the above, duke of Austria and Styria 1330–1339 (together with his brother), duke of Carinthia after 1335.
• Rudolph IV the Founder (der Stifter), oldest son of Albert II. Duke of Austria and Styria 1358–1365, Duke of Tyrol after 1363.

After the death of Rudolph IV, his brothers Albert III and Leopold III ruled the Habsburg possessions together from 1365 until 1379, when they split the territories in the Treaty of Neuberg, Albert keeping the Duchy of Austria and Leopold ruling over Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the Windish March, Tyrol, and Further Austria.

[edit] Albertine line: Dukes of Austria

• Albert III (Albrecht III), duke of Austria until 1395, from 1386 (after the death of Leopold) until 1395 also ruled over the latter's possessions.
• Albert IV (Albrecht IV), duke of Austria 1395–1404, in conflict with Leopold IV.
• Albert V (Albrecht V), duke of Austria 1404–1439, Holy Roman Emperor from 1438–1439 as Albert II. See also below.
• Ladislaus Posthumus, son of the above, duke of Austria 1440–1457.

[edit] Leopoldine line: Dukes of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol

• Leopold III, duke of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, and Further Austria until 1386, when he was killed in the Battle of Sempach.
• William (Wilhelm), son of the above, 1386–1406 duke in Inner Austria (Carinthia, Styria)
• Leopold IV, son of Leopold III, 1391 regent of Further Austria, 1395–1402 duke of Tyrol, after 1404 also duke of Austria, 1406–1411 duke of Inner Austria
• Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover, duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg {1629-1629} father of King George I of Great Britain ancestor of the House of Windsor

[edit] Leopoldine-Inner Austrian sub-line

• Ernest the Iron (der Eiserne), 1406–1424 duke of Inner Austria, until 1411 together and competing with his brother Leopold IV.
• Frederick V (Friedrich), son of Ernst, became emperor Frederick III in 1440. He was duke of Inner Austria from 1424 on. Guardian of Sigismund 1439–1446 and of Ladislaus Posthumus 1440–1452. See also below.
• Albert VI (Albrecht VI), brother of the above, 1446–1463 regent of Further Austria, duke of Austria 1458–1463
• Ernestine line of Saxon princes, ancestor of George I of Great Britain-descended from sister of Frederick III

[edit] Leopoldine-Tyrol sub-line

• Frederick IV (Friedrich), brother of Ernst, 1402–1439 duke of Tyrol and Further Austria
• Sigismund, also spelled Siegmund or Sigmund, 1439–1446 under the tutelage of the Frederick V above, then duke of Tyrol, and after the death of Albrecht VI in 1463 also duke of Further Austria.

[edit] Reuniting of Habsburg possessions

Sigismund had no children and adopted Maximilian I, son of duke Frederick V (emperor Frederick III). Under Maximilian, the possessions of the Habsburgs would be united again under one ruler, after he had re-conquered the Duchy of Austria after the death of Matthias Corvinus, who resided in Vienna and styled himself duke of Austria from 1485–1490.

[edit] German Kings and Holy Roman Emperors previous to the reunion of the Habsburg possessions

• Rudolph I, emperor 1273–1291 (never crowned)
• Albert I, emperor 1298–1308 (never crowned)
• Albert II, emperor 1438–1439 (never crowned)
• Frederick III, emperor 1440–1493

[edit] Kings of Hungary previous to the reunion of the Habsburg possessions

• Albert, king of Hungary 1437–1439
• Ladislaus V Posthumus, king of Hungary 1444–1457

[edit] Main Line: Holy Roman Emperors, Archdukes of Austria

• Maximilian I, emperor 1493–1519
• Charles V, emperor 1519–1556

[edit] Spanish Habsburgs: Kings of Spain, Kings of Portugal (1580–1640)

See also: Portuguese House of Habsburg

• Philip I of Castile, second son of Maximilian I, founded the Spanish Habsburgs in 1496 by marrying Joanna the Mad, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. Philip died in 1506, leaving the thrones of Castile and Aragon to be inherited and united into the nation of Spain by his son:
• Charles I 1516–1556, aka Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor; converdivided the House into Austrian and Spanish lines
• Philip II of Spain 1556–1598, also Philip I of Portugal 1580–1598 and Philip I of England and his wife Mary I of England 1554–1558
• Philip III, also Philip II of Portugal 1598–1621
• Philip IV 1621–1665, also Philip III of Portugal 1621–1640
• Charles II 1665–1700

The War of the Spanish Succession took place after the extinction of the Spanish Habsburg line, to determine the inheritance of Charles II.

[edit] Austrian Habsburgs: Holy Roman Emperors, Archdukes of Austria

• Ferdinand I, emperor 1556–1564 (→Family Tree)
• Maximilian II, emperor 1564–1576
• Rudolf II, emperor 1576–1612
• Matthias, emperor 1612–1619
• Ferdinand II, emperor 1619–1637
• Ferdinand III, emperor 1637–1657 (→Family Tree)
• Leopold I, emperor 1658–1705
• Josef I, emperor 1705–1711
• Charles VI, emperor 1711–1740

Maria Theresa of Austria, Habsburg heiress and wife of emperor Francis I Stephen, reigned as Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia 1740–1780.

[edit] House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Holy Roman Emperors, Archdukes of Austria

• Francis I Stephen, emperor 1745–1765 (→Family Tree)
• Joseph II, emperor 1765–1790
• Leopold II, emperor 1790–1792 (→Family Tree)
• Francis II, emperor 1792–1806 (→Family Tree)

Queen Maria Christina of Austria of Spain, great-granddaughter of Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor above. Wife of Alfonso XII of Spain and mother of Alfonso XIII.

The House of Habsburg-Lorraine retained Austria and attached possessions after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire; see below.

A son of Leopold II was Archduke Rainer of Austria whose wife was from the House of Savoy; a daughter Adelaide, Queen of Sardina was the wife of King Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia and King of Italy. Their Children married into the Royal Houses of Bonaparte; House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha {Braganza {Portugal}; House of Savoy {Spain}; and the Dukedoms of Montferrat and Chablis.

[edit] House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Grand dukes of Tuscany

• Francis Stephen 1737-1765 (later Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor)

Francis Stephen assigned the grand duchy of Tuscany to his second son Peter Leopold, who in turn assigned it to his second son upon his accession as Holy Roman Emperor. Tuscany remained the domain of this cadet branch of the family until Italian unification.

• Peter Leopold 1765-1790 (later Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor)
• Ferdinand III 1790-1800, 1814-1824 (→Family Tree)
• Leopold II 1824-1849, 1849-1859
• Ferdinand IV 1859-1860

[edit] House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Tuscany line, post monarchy

• Ferdinand IV 1860-1908
• Archduke Peter Ferdinand, Prince of Tuscany 1908-1948
• Archduke Gottfried, Prince of Tuscany 1948-1984
• Archduke Leopold Franz, Prince of Tuscany 1948-1993
• Archduke Sigismund, Grand Duke of Tuscany 1993-Present

see Line of succession to the Tuscan Throne

[edit] House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Dukes of Modena

The duchy of Modena was assigned to a minor branch of the family by the Congress of Vienna. It was lost to Italian unification.

• Francis IV 1814-1831, 1831-1846 (→Family Tree)
• Francis V 1846-1848, 1849-1859

[edit] House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Modena line, post monarchy

• Francis V (1859-1875)
• Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria-Este (1875-1914)
• Karl, Archduke of Austria-Este (1914-1917)
• Robert, Archduke of Austria-Este (1917-1996)
• Lorenz, Archduke of Austria-Este (1996-Present)

[edit] House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Duchess of Parma

The duchy of Parma was likewise assigned to a Habsburg, but did not stay in the House long before succumbing to Italian unification. It was granted to the second wife of Napoleon I of France, Maria Luisa Duchess of Parma, a daughter of the Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, who was the mother of Napoleon II of France. Napoleon had divorced his wife Rose de Tascher de la Pagerie (better known to history as Josephine de Beauharnais) in her favour.

• Maria Luisa 1814-1847 (→Family Tree)

[edit] House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Emperor of Mexico

Maximilian, an adventurous younger son, was invited as part of Napoleon III's manipulations to take the throne of Mexico. The conservative Mexicans, as well as the clergy, supported this Second Mexican Empire. His consort, Empress Carlota of Mexico, born a Belgian princess of the House of Saxe-Coburg Gotha, encouraged her husbands acceptance of the Mexican crown and accompanied him to Mexico. The adventure did not end well. Maximilian was shot in "Cerro de las Campanas" in 1867 by the republican forces of Benito Juarez.

• Maximilian I 1864-1867) (→Family Tree)

[edit] House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Emperors of Austria

• Francis I, Emperor of Austria 1804–1835: formerly Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (→Family Tree)
• Ferdinand I, Emperor of Austria 1835–1848
• Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria 1848–1916.
• Charles I, Emperor of Austria 1916–1918. He died in exile in 1922. His wife was of the House of Bourbon-Parma.

[edit] House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Heads of the House of Habsburg (post-monarchy)

Charles I was expelled from his domains after World War I and the empire was abolished.

• Charles I (1918-1922) (→Family Tree)
• Otto von Habsburg (1912-present)
• Zita of Bourbon-Parma, guardian, (1922-1930)
• Karl Habsburg-Lothringen, successor in due course to Otto

see Line of succession to the Austria-Hungary Throne

[edit] Burials

See Imperial Crypt in Vienna.

[edit] Habsburgs as Kings of Hungary

The kingship of Hungary remained in the Habsburg family for centuries; but as the kingship was not strictly inherited (Hungary was an elective monarchy till 1687) and was sometimes used as a training ground for young Habsburgs, the dates of rule do not always match those of the primary Habsburg possessions. Therefore, the kings of Hungary are listed separately.

[edit] Albertine line: Kings of Hungary

• Albert, king of Hungary 1437–1439
• Ladislaus V Posthumus, King of Hungary 1444–1457

[edit] Austrian Habsburgs: Kings of Hungary

• Ferdinand I, king of Hungary 1526–1564
• Maximilian I, king of Hungary 1563–1576
• Rudolf I, king of Hungary 1572–1608
• Matthias, king of Hungary 1608–1619
• Ferdinand II, king of Hungary 1618–1637
• Ferdinand III, king of Hungary 1625–1657
• Ferdinand IV, king of Hungary 1647–1654
• Leopold I, king of Hungary 1655–1705
• Joseph I, king of Hungary 1687–1711
• Charles III, king of Hungary 1711–1740

[edit] House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Kings of Hungary

• Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary 1741–1780
• Joseph II, king of Hungary 1780–1790
• Leopold II, king of Hungary 1790–1792
• Francis, king of Hungary 1792–1835
• Ferdinand V, king of Hungary 1835–1848
• Francis Joseph I, king of Hungary 1867–1916
• Charles IV, king of Hungary 1916–1918

[edit] Habsburgs as Kings of Bohemia

The kingship of Bohemia was for centuries a position elected by its nobles. As a result, it was not an automatically inherited position. The king of Bohemia tended to be a Habsburg, but was not always. Hence, the kings of Bohemia and their ruling dates are listed separately.

[edit] Main line: Kings of Bohemia

• Rudolph I, king of Bohemia 1306-1307

[edit] Albertine line: Kings of Bohemia

• Albert, king of Bohemia 1437–1439
• Ladislaus Posthumus, king of Bohemia 1453–1457

[edit] Austrian Habsburgs: Kings of Bohemia

• Ferdinand I, king of Bohemia 1526–1564
• Maximilian I, king of Bohemia 1563–1576
• Rudolph II, king of Bohemia 1572–1611
• Matthias, king of Bohemia 1611–1618
• Ferdinand II, king of Bohemia 1621–1637
• Ferdinand III, king of Bohemia 1625–1657
• Ferdinand IV, king of Bohemia 1647–1654
• Leopold I, king of Bohemia 1655–1705
• Joseph I, king of Bohemia 1687–1711
• Charles II, king of Bohemia 1711–1740

[edit] House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Kings of Bohemia

From the accession of Maria Theresa, the kingship of Bohemia became united with the Austrian possessions.

• Maria Theresa, queen of Bohemia 1743–1780
• Joseph II, king of Bohemia 1780–1790
• Leopold II, king of Bohemia 1790–1792
• Francis, king of Bohemia 1792–1835
• Ferdinand V, king of Bohemia 1835–1848
• Francis Joseph I, king of Bohemia 1848–1916
• Charles III, king of Bohemia 1916–1918

[edit] Habsburgs as Queens Consort of France

From the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries, the greatest non-Habsburg power in Europe was usually France. As a result, in usually futile attempts to either unite Europe under the Habsburg family or to prevent French enmity, Habsburg daughters were wed to successive kings of France.

[edit] Pre-division Habsburgs

• Eleanor of Habsburg, Infanta of Spain (1498-1558), wife of King Francis I of France.

[edit] Austrian Habsburgs

• Elisabeth of Austria (1554-1592), wife of King Charles IX of France

[edit] Spanish Habsburgs

• Anne of Austria, infanta of Spain, (1601–1666), wife of King Louis XIII
• Maria Theresa of Spain (1638–1683), wife of King Louis XIV

[edit] Habsburg-Lorraine

• Marie Antoinette (1755–1793), wife of King Louis XVI
• Marie Louise (1791 -1847), second wife of Emperor Napoleon I.

[edit] See also

• List of rulers of Austria
• Habsburg Monarchy
• Austrian Empire
• Austria-Hungary
• Habsburg Spain
• Thirty Years' War
• Ottoman-Habsburg wars
• Habsburg Family Tree
• Mandibular prognathism ("Habsburg lip")
• A.E.I.O.U.
• Mayerling Incident

[edit] Further reading

• Brewer-Ward, Daniel A. The House of Habsburg: A Genealogy of the Descendants of Empress Maria Theresia. Clearfield, 1996.
• Evans, Robert J. W. The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1550-1700: An Interpretation. Clarendon Press, 1979.
• McGuigan, Dorothy Gies. The Habsburgs. Doubleday, 1966.
• Wandruszka, Adam. The House of Habsburg: Six Hundred Years of a European Dynasty. Doubleday, 1964 (Greenwood Press, 1975).
• Crankshaw, Edward. The Fall of the House of Habsburg. Sphere Books Limited, London, 1970. (first published by Longmans in 1963)

[edit] External links

• "Erzherzog Dr. Otto von Habsburg" (Autorisierte Ehrenseite) in German
• Habsburg Biographies
• Habsburg Resource Centre on SurnameWeb
• http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~stephan/Rulers/hapsburg3.html
• Genealogical tree of the house of Habsburg (up until Maria Theresia)
• An Online Gotha - House of Habsburg-Lothringen (Maria Theresia's decendants}
• The Hapsburg Monarchy (Wickham Steed, 1913)) eLibrary Austria Project full text (ebook)
• Genealogy of the Habsburgs from Genealogy.eu
• An Online Gotha - House of Habsburg-Lothringen

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