Freyja

From Includipedia, the inclusionist encyclopedia

For other meanings of Freya, see Freya (disambiguation).

Freyja (sometimes anglicized as Freya) is a major goddess in Germanic paganism, particularly in its late form, Norse paganism, where numerous surviving tales either involve or feature her. Because the best documented source of this religious tradition, the Norse Mythology, was transmitted and altered by Christian medieval historians,^[1] the actual role, heathen practices and worship of the goddess are uncertain.

While there are some sources^[2] suggesting that Freyja was called on to bring fruitfulness to fields or wombs, in the Eddas, she was portrayed as a goddess of love, beauty, and fertility. Freyja is described as the fairest of all goddesses,^[3] and people prayed to her for happiness in love.^[4]

Freyja was also associated with war, battle, death, magic, prophecy, and wealth. She is cited as receiving half of the dead lost in battle in her hall Fólkvangr, whereas Odin would receive the other half at Valhalla. And the origin of Seid was ascribed to Freyja.^[5][6]

Frigg and Freyja are the two principal goddesses in Norse religion, and described as the highest amongst the Asynjur.^[7] Freyja is the goddess most honoured after or along with Frigg, and her worship seems to have been even the more prevalent and important of the two.^[8] In the Droplaugarsona Saga, it is described that in a temple at Ölvusvatn, Iceland, statues of Frigg and Freyja have been seated upon higher thrones opposite those of Thor and Freyr. These statues were arrayed in drapery and ornaments of gold and silver.

In Heimskringla, Freyja is also presented as a mythological Princess of Sweden. Her father Njörðr is seen as the second mythological King of Sweden, and her brother Freyr is the third. Freyr and Freyja's mother is Njörðr's sister (who is has been often linked to the ancient Germanic goddess Nerthus^[9]), as it is a custom of the Vanir and allowed by their laws.^[5]

Further in Heimskringla, it is written that many temples and statues of native pagan gods and goddesses were raided and destroyed by Olaf Tryggvason and Saint Olaf during the gradual and violent process of the Christianization of Scandinavia. During and after the extent that the process of Christianization was complete, Freyja and many things associated with her were demonized^[10] by the growing influence of Christian missionaries. After Christian influence was cemented in law, traces of belief went increasingly underground into mainly rural areas, surviving into modern times in Germanic folklore and most recently reconstructed to varying degrees in Germanic neopaganism.

Contents 1 Etymology 2 Merseburger Zaubersprüche 3 Prose Edda 3.1 Gylfaginning 3.2 Skáldskaparmál 3.3 Appearances in Myths 4 The Poetic Edda 4.1 Grímnismál 4.2 Völuspá 4.3 Þrymskviða 4.4 Ægisdrekka or Lokasenna 4.5 Hyndlulíoð 4.6 Oddrúnargrátr 5 Other Sagas 6 15th century account 7 19th century accounts 8 Receiver of half the slain 9 Possessions 9.1 Jewelry 9.2 Cloak 9.3 Cat-drawn Chariot 9.4 Boar 10 Other names 10.1 Forms of "Freyja" 10.2 Other forms 10.3 Kennings 11 Eponyms 11.1 People 11.2 Places 11.3 Plants 11.4 Friday 11.5 Misc 12 Homologues 13 Freyja in Modern Culture 13.1 Der Ring des Nibelungen 13.2 Sagan om Valhalla 14 Influence in Christmas traditions 15 Potential connections 15.1 Frigg 15.2 Gefjun 15.3 Gullveig 16 References 17 Notes 18 See also

[edit] Etymology

The names Freyr and Freyja come from Germanic words meaning "the Lord" and "the Lady" respectively (cf. Gothic Fráuja "lord, master", Fráujo "lady, mistress", Old Norse Frú "mistress, lady, woman", Danish Frue, Swedish Fru, German Frau "miss, woman, wife", Old High German Frouwa, Anglo-Saxon Freo, Frea).

Like the French word "Dame" (from Latin "domina"), whose masculine form (Latin "dominus") had perished, the meaning of "Lord" is also no longer in use, while the title "Frau" still survives today in Germanic languages.

Freyja's name, however, is also maybe related to Frigg's name (which came from fri "to love"), because "woman" and "love" are ultimately related, and Freyja and Frigg are often thought to be avatars of each other (cf. Frige, Friia, Frija, Frea).

[edit] Merseburger Zaubersprüche

Recorded during the 9th or 10th Century, though dating to an unknown earlier time, one of the two Incantations from Merseburg, Germany includes a mention of Freyja (here referred to as Friia)^[11] as having a sister named Uolla who both place an enchantment on the wounded horse of Wodan (Odin). Uolla may be Fulla, a minor goddess who in Gylfaginning (35) is mentioned right before Freyja. But in Norse accounts, she is often described as a maid.

[edit] Prose Edda

The Prose Edda, a large collection of Norse tales and pagan lore written down by Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson around 1220, contains numerous references to Freyja. Snorri quotes many skaldic poems and older sources for what he writes.

[edit] Gylfaginning

In Gylfaginning, the first book of the Prose Edda after the prologue, Freyja is introduced as follows.

Njörðr í Nóatúnum gat síðan tvau börn, hét sonr Freyr en dóttir Freyja. Þau váru fögr álitum ok máttug. ... Freyja er ágætust af ásynjum, hon á þann bœ á himni er Fólkvangar heita, ok hvar sem hon ríðr til vígs, þá á hon hálfan val, en hálfan Óðinn ... Salr hennar, Sessrýmnir, hann er mikill ok fagr. En er hon ferr, þá ekr hon köttum tveim ok sitr í reið. Hon er nákvæmust mönnum til á at heita, ok af hennar nafni er þat tignarnafn er ríkiskonur eru kallaðar fróvur. Henni líkaði vel mansöngr. Á hana er gott at heita til ásta. Gylfaginning, (Björnsson's Edition)[12]

Njördr in Nóatún begot afterward children: the son was called Freyr, and the daughter Freyja; they were fair of face and mighty. ... Freyja is the most renowned of the goddesses; she has in heaven the dwelling called Fólkvangr, and where so ever she rides to the strife, she has one-half of the kill, and Odin half ... Her hall Sessrúmnir is great and fair. When she goes forth, she drives her cats and sits in a chariot; she is most conformable to man's prayers, and from her name comes the name of honor, Frú, by which noblewomen are called. Songs of love are well-pleasing to her; it is good to call on her for furtherance in love. Gylfaginning, (Brodeur's Translation)[13]

Freyja er tignust með Frigg. Hon giftist þeim manni, er Óðr heitir. Dóttir þeira er Hnoss. Hon er svá fögr, at af hennar nafni eru hnossir kallaðar, þat er fagrt er ok gersimligt. Óðr fór í braut langar leiðir, en Freyja grætr eftir, en tár hennar er gull rautt. Freyja á mörg nöfn, en sú er sök til þess, at hon gaf sér ýmis heiti, er hon fór með ókunnum þjóðum at leita Óðs. Hon heitir Mardöll ok Hörn, Gefn, Sýr. Freyja átti Brísingamen. Hon er ok kölluð Vanadís. Gylfaginning, (Björnsson's Edition)[12]

Freyja is most gently born (together with Frigg): she is wedded to the man named Óðr. Their daughter is Hnoss: she is so fair, that those things which are fair and precious are called hnossir. Óðr went away on long journeys, and Freyja weeps for him, and her tears are red gold. Freyja has many names, and this is the cause thereof: that she gave herself sundry names, when she went out among unknown peoples seeking Óðr: she is called Mardöll and Hörn, Gefn, Sýr. Freyja had the necklace Brísingamen. She is also called Lady of the Vanir. Gylfaginning, (Brodeur's Translation)[13]

The three minor goddesses mentioned right after Freyja in Gylfaginning (35) are often regarded as her attendants: ^[14] Sjöfn (a goddess of love), Lofn (a goddess of marriage), and Vár (a goddess of oaths between men and women). It is unclear whether these minor goddesses are simply different aspects/names of Freyja herself (cf. Avatar).

[edit] Skáldskaparmál

"How should one periphrase Freyja? Thus: by calling her Daughter of Njörðr, Sister of Freyr, Wife of Óðr, Mother of Hnoss, Possessor of the Slain, of Sessrúmnir, of the Gib-Cats, and of Brísingamen; Goddess of the Vanir, Lady of the Vanir, Goddess Beautiful in Tears, Goddess of Love."

Skáldskaparmál (20)^[13]

"How should gold be periphrased? Thus: by calling it Ægir's Fire, and Needles of Glasir, Hair of Sif, Snood of Fulla, Freyja's Tears, Talk and Voice and Word of Giants, Draupnir's Drop and Rain or Shower of Draupnfir, or of Freyja's Eyes, Otter's Ransom, Forced Payment of the Æsir, Seed of Fýris-Plain, Cairn-Roof of Hölgi, Fire of all Waters and of the Hand, Stone and Reef or Gleam of the Hand."

Skáldskaparmál (32)^[13]

"Gold is called Freyja's Tears, as was said before. So sang Skúli Thorsteinsson:

Many a fearless swordsman

Received the Tears of Freyja

The more the morn when foemen

We murdered; we were present.

And as Einarr Skúlason sang:

Where, mounted 'twixt the carvings,

The Tear of Mardöll lieth,

We bear the axe shield-splitting,

Swollen with Serpent's lair-gold."

Skáldskaparmál (37)^[13]

[edit] Appearances in Myths

Freyja appears in many myths recorded in the Prose Edda.

(Because the myths in the Prose Edda are written in prose and rather lengthy, the tales below are shortened.)

• Divine twins born after the war of the gods: The war between the Æsir and the Vanir was ignited by the ill treatments of the Æsir to Gullveig, as written here in Völuspá:

The war I remember, the first in the world,

When the gods with spears had smitten Gullveig,

And in the hall of Hor had burned her,

Three times burned, and three times born,

Oft and again, yet ever she lives.

On the host his spear did Odin hurl,

Then in the world did war first come;

The wall that girdled the gods was broken,

And the field by the warlike Wanes was trodden.

Then sought the gods their assembly-seats,

The holy ones, and council held,

Whether the gods should tribute give,

Or to all alike should worship belong.

The war ended in a peace treaty, and both sides exchanged hostages. Njörðr was chosen by the Vanir, and sent from Vanaheim to Asgard where he later begot two fair children, as written in Gylfaginning (23 & 24):

Hinn þriði áss er sá er kallaðr er Njörðr, hann býr á himni þar sem heitir Nóatún. Hann ræðr fyrir göngu vinds ok stillir sjá ok eld. Á hann skal heita til sæfara ok til veiða. Hann er svá auðigr ok fésæll at hann má gefa þeim auð landa eða lausafjár er á hann heita til þess. Eigi er Njörðr ása ættar. Hann var upp fœddr í Vanaheimum, en vanir gísluðu hann goðunum ok tóku í mót at ása gísli gu þann er Hœnir heitir. Hann varð at sætt með goðunum ok vönum. Njörðr í Nóatúnum gat síðan tvau börn, hét sonr Freyr en dóttir Freyja...

The third among the Æsir is Njörðr: he dwells in heaven, in the abode called Nóatún. He rules the course of the wind, and stills sea and fire; on him shall men call for voyages and for hunting. He is so prosperous and abounding in wealth, that he may give them great plenty of lands or of gear; and him shall men invoke for such things. Njörðr is not of the race of the Æsir: he was reared in Vanaheim, but the Vanir delivered him as hostage to the gods, and took for hostage in exchange him that men call Hœnir; he became an atonement between the gods and the Vanir. Njörðr in Nóatún begot afterward two children: the son was called Freyr, and the daughter Freyja...

• The feast of the Æsir: "A certain man was named Ægir, or Hlér took his way to Asgard, but the Æsir had foreknowledge of his journey; he was received with good cheer. And at evening, when it was time for drinking, Odin had swords brought into the hall, so bright that light radiated from them: and other illumination was not used while they sat at drinking. Then the Æsir came in to their banquet, and in the high-seats sat them down those twelve Æsir who were appointed to be judges; these were their names: Thor, Njörðr, Freyr, Týr, Heimdallr, Bragi, Vidar, Váli, Ullr, Hœnir, Forseti, Loki; and in like manner the Asynjur: Frigg, Freyja, Gefjun, Idunn, Gerd, Sigyn, Fulla, Nanna. It seemed glorious to Ægir to look about him in the hall: the wainscottings there were all hung with fair shields; there was also stinging mead, copiously quaffed. The man seated next to Ægir was Bragi, and they took part together in drinking and in converse: Bragi told Ægir of many things which had come to pass among the Æsir." (Skáldskaparmál (1))

• The robbery of Brísingamen: The giant Loki once stole the necklace Brísingamen as one of his pranks, and Freyja had to enlist the help of Heimdallr. Heimdallr won the fight with Loki and brought the necklace back to Freyja. Therefore Heimdallr is called "Seeker of Brísingamen" and Loki is called "Thief of Brísingamen".

"How should one periphrase Heimdallr? By calling him Son of Nine Mothers, or Watchman of the Gods, as already has been written; or White God, Foe of Loki, Seeker of Freyja's Necklace... Heimdallr is the Possessor of Gulltoppr; he is also Frequenter of Vágasker and Singasteinn, where he contended with Loki for the Necklace Brísingamen, he is also called Vindlér..." (Skáldskaparmál (8)) ^[13]

"How should one periphrase Loki? ... Thief of the Giants, of the Goat, of Brísingamen, and of Idunn's Apples, Kinsman of Sleipnir, Husband of Sigyn, Foe of the Gods, Harmer of Sif's Hair, Forger of Evil, the Sly God." (Skáldskaparmál (16))^[13]

• The owner of Svadilfari: This giant came to offer to build a citidel for the gods in three seasons. He demanded to marry fair Freyja, also the sun and the moon as his rewards. Following Loki's ill advice, the gods accepted the deal, but they later urged Loki to deceive the giant to protect Freyja. Loki turned into a mare and seduced Svadilfari, the huge steed of the giant. Without his horse, the giant could not complete his job, he was enraged, insulted the gods, and eventually got slain by Thor before the deal was completed. Loki's prank ultimately backfired on him, and he bore the son of the horse Svadilfari, Sleipnir. (Gylfaginning (42))

• The abduction of Idunn: The giant Thjazi captured Loki and forced him to lure Idunn out to kidnap her along with the golden apples. Without the apples of youth, the gods grew old and they soon found out that Idunn was missing. She was last seen going with Loki, so they cornered the giant and threathened to slay him. Loki had to borrow the hawk's plumage of Freyja to go and free Idunn. Thjazi chased after them in eagle form, but he was roasted by the gods' fire. Thjazi is father of Skaði, who later became Freyr and Freyja's stepmother. Skaði's march to Asgard for vengeance ended in a marriage with Njörðr. (Skáldskaparmál (1))

• Thor's duel: After his race with Odin, which he lost, the champion of the giants, Hrungnir, came to Asgard. Thor is absent, so he boasted that he would destroy Valhalla, slay all the gods, and take Freyja and Sif home with him. Of all goddesses, Freyja alone was brave enough to stand and pour ale for the giant to waste time while Thor is summoned. The god of thunder, with the help of his clever servant Thjálfi, later slew Hrungnir in a duel, but Thor himself was struck by the giant's horn and also wounded. This is one of the reasons why the Hill Giants are amongst the gods' enemies at the final battle. (Skáldskaparmál (17))

• Baldur's funeral: Baldur, the best of the Æsir, can not be harmed by anything. Loki turned himself into a woman to trick Frigg into revealing that Baldur can only be hurt by the mistletoes. Loki then tricked the blind god Hödr to shoot his brother with a mistletoe twig, thus Baldur was murdered by the evil giant Loki's trickery. "People of many races visited this burning. First is to be told of Odin, how Frigg and the Valkyries went with him, and his ravens; but Freyr drove in his chariot with the boar called Gold-Mane, or Fearful-Tusk, and Heimdallr rode the horse called Gold-Top, and Freyja drove in her chariot drawn by cats..." (Gylfaginning (49))

[edit] The Poetic Edda

Freyja appears in various poems of the Poetic Edda, a compilation of poems composed around the 9th to the 11th century.

[edit] Grímnismál

Grímnismál (The Sayings of Grímnir)^[15] has some stanzas devoted to describing the major Norse deities' realms. Fólkvangr is among the twelve abodes of the gods mentioned in the poem.

"Fólkvangr is the ninth,

there Freyja directs

the sittings in the hall.

She half the fallen chooses each day,

but Odin the other half."

It was written by Snorri Sturluson in the Prose Edda that "whenever she rides to the strife, she has one-half of the slain". The stanza above describes Freyja's realm. The name Fólkvangr can be translated to "Folks-Plain", "Dead People's Field", or "Battlefield" (the "folks" here are maybe the men arrayed in battles). Her hall, Sessrúmnir, can be translated as "Seats-Roomy", "Rich in Seats", or "Hall of Seats". These names indicate that Freyja is served by a large number of people, either dead heroes or dead noblewomen.

[edit] Völuspá

Völuspá (Prophecy of the Seeress)^[15] is the first and most debated poem in the Poetic Edda. Odin met a Vala, and she told him about the past as well as the destiny of the gods. Freyja is mentioned briefly in the poem:

"Then sought the gods their assembly-seats,

The holy ones, and council held,

To find who with venom the air had filled,

Or had given Óðr's bride to the giants' brood.

In swelling rage then rose up Thor,

Seldom he sits when he such things hears,

And the oaths were broken, the words and bonds

The mighty pledges between them made."

These two stanzas is part of the story mentioned in the Prose Edda, when the gods tried to break the deal with the owner of Svadilfari in order to protect Freyja. Here Freyja is mentioned as "Óðr's bride", and the one with "venom the air had filled" is Loki. Parts of this story was lost because Völuspá, like most other Eddic Poems, were in very poor shape.

In his Our Fathers' Godsaga, Viktor Rydberg had another idea. He thinks that these stanzas are connected to the story of the execution of Gullveig (which is mentioned right before this part), and that Gullveig was executed because she gave Freyja to Jötunheim. Rydberg's explanation is not unsupportable, because given Völuspá's poor state, many Eddic editors sorted the poem differently.

[edit] Þrymskviða

Þrymskviða (The Song of Thrymr)^[15] is arguably the best and oldest of all Eddic poems.^[16] The story remained famous for a very long time throughout Scandinavia. It begins with Thor one day finding his mighty warhammer Mjöllnir stolen. He came with Loki to Fólkvangr to borrow Freyja's hawk's plumage.

• Thor:

"Wilt thou me, Freyja,

thy feather-garment lend,

that perchance my hammer

I may find?"

• Freyja:

"That I would give thee,

although of gold it were,

and trust it to thee,

though it were of silver."

Loki then used the feathered cloak to transform into a bird to seek for Thor's hammer. He soon discovered that Thrymr, King of the Rime Jötuns had hidden the hammer somewhere, and demanded to marry Freyja in return.

On a mound sat Thrymr,

the Thursar’s lord,

for his greyhounds

plaiting gold bands

and his horses’

manes smoothing.

• Thrymr:

"How goes it with the Æsir

How goes it with the Alfar, (Alfar: elves, or else, the Vanir)

Why art thou come alone

to Jötunheim?"

• Loki:

"Ill it goes with the Æsir,

Ill it goes with the Alfar.

Hast thou Hlorridi’s (Another name of Thor)

hammer hidden?"

• Thrymr:

"I have Hlorridi’s

hammer hidden

eight rasts

beneath the earth;

it shall no man

get again,

unless he bring me

Freyja to wife."

Loki came back to Asgard and went to Fólkvangr again.

• Loki:

"Bind thee, Freyja,

in bridal raiment,

for we two must drive

to Jötunheim."

Freyja was so wrathful that all the gods' dwellings were shaken and the necklace Brísingamen broke off from her neck.

Wroth then was Freyja,

and with anger chafed,

all the Æsir’s halls

beneath her trembled:

in shivers flew the famed

Brisinga-necklace. (Brisinga: flaming, twinkling; -men: necklace, jewery)

• Freyja:

"Know me to be

of women lewdest,

if with thee I drive

to Jötunheim."

Later, in the council of the gods and goddesses...

• Heimdallr:

"Let us clothe Thor

with bridal raiment,

let him have the famed

Brisinga-necklace.

Let by his side

keys jingle,

and woman’s weeds

fall round his knees,

but on his breast

place precious stones,

and a neat coif

set on his head."

• Thor:

"Me the Æsir will

call womanish,

if I let myself be clad

in bridal raiment."

• Loki:

"Do thou, Thor! refrain

from suchlike words:

forthwith the Jötuns will

Asgard inhabit,

unless thy hammer thou

gettest back."

"I will with thee

as a servant go:

we two will drive

to Jötunheim."

Thor and Loki borrowed Brísingamen. They went to the wedding disguised as "Freyja and her maid", where Thrymr jubilantly welcomed his new bride.

• Thrymr:

"Rise up, Jötuns!

and the benches deck,

now they bring me

Freyja to wife,

Njörðr’s daughter,

from Noatún.

Hither to our court let bring

gold-horned cows,

all-black oxen,

for the Jötuns’ joy.

Treasures I have many,

necklaces many,

Freyja alone

seemed to me wanting."

But soon at the banquet, Thrymr was shocked as "Freyja" ate an ox, eight salmons, and drank three casks of meads.

• Thrymr:

"Where hast thou seen brides

eat more voraciously?

I never saw brides

feed more amply,

nor a maiden

drink more mead."

• "The maid":

"Freyja has nothing eaten

for eight nights,

so eager was she

for Jötunheim."

Under her veil he stooped

desirous to salute her,

but sprang back

along the hall.

• Thrymr:

"Why are so piercing

Freyja’s looks?

Methinks that fire

burns from her eyes."

• "The maid":

"Freyja for eight nights

has not slept,

so eager was she

for Jötunheim."

The Jötuns eventually gave "Freyja" the hammer.

• Thrymr:

"Bring the hammer in,

the bride to consecrate;

lay Mjöllnir

on the maiden’s knee;

unite us each with other

by the hand of Vör."

Laughed Hlorridi’s

soul in his breast,

when the fierce-hearted

his hammer recognized.

He first slew Thrymr,

the Thursar’s lord,

and the Jötun’s race

all crushed.

Thor sprang out from his disguise, slew Thrymr and all his kin, and robbed all his numerous treasures. This is the reason why the Frost Giants are amongst the gods' enemies at the final battle, but they have no leader.

[edit] Ægisdrekka or Lokasenna

Lokasenna (Loki's Wrangling)^[15] was found only in one edition of the Poetic Edda, the Regius. Most references in this poem are not mentioned anywhere else either, and whether the poet was heathen or not is debated, because he seems not to have any respect for pagan deities.

After the giant Ægir got a mighty kettle, he brewed ale and invited the Æsir, Asynjur, and Alfar. Of all the Æsir came Odin, Njörðr, Freyr, Bragi, Týr, Heimdallr, Vidar. Of all the Asynjur came Frigg, Freyja, Gefjun, Idunn, Skaði, Sif. Loki came although he was not invited. There, he slew one of Ægir's servant, and accused the gods of immorality. In the poem, the gods and goddesses trade barbs with Loki.

The exchange between Freyja and Loki reads as follows:

• Loki:

"Be thou silent, Frigg!

Thou art Fjorgyn's daughter, (Fjorgyn: the earth.)

and ever hast been lustful,

since Ve and Vili, it is said,

thou, Vidrir's wife, didst (Vidrir: another name of Odin, Ve and Vili: Odin's brothers)

both to thy bosom take."

• Freyja:

"Mad art thou, Loki!

in recounting

thy foul misdeeds.

Frigg, I believe,

knows all that happens,

although she says it not."

• Loki:

"Be thou silent, Freyja!

I know thee full well;

thou art not free from vices:

of the Æsir and the Alfar,

that are herein,

each has been thy paramour."

• Freyja:

"False is thy tongue.

Henceforth it will, I think,

prate no good to thee.

Wroth with thee are the Æsir,

and the Asyniur.

Sad shalt thou home depart."

• Loki:

"Be silent, Freyja!

Thou art a sorceress,

and with much evil blended;

since against thy brother thou

the gentle powers excited.

And then, Freyja! what didst thou do?"

• Njörðr:

"It is no great wonder,

if silk-clad dames

get themselves husbands, lovers;

but 'tis a wonder that a wretched man,

that has borne children, (i.e. the horse Sleipnir)

should herein enter."

Beside Frigg and Freyja; Idunn, Gefjun, Sif, and Skaði are also insulted by Loki in the same way. Lee M. Hollander theorized that Lokasenna was intended to be humorous and that the accusations thrown by Loki in the poem are not necessarily to be taken as "generally accepted lore" at the time it was composed. Rather they are charges that are easy for Loki to make and difficult for his targets to disprove, or which they do not care to refute.^[17]

[edit] Hyndlulíoð

Hyndlulíoð (The Lay of Hyndla)^[15] was found only in a late edition of the Poetic Edda (around 1400), where it is preserved in a very poor shape. The poem is in fact two poems mixed up together, the semi-historical "Lay of Hyndla" and another labelled by Snorri as "The lesser Völuspá". The date it was composed is generally accepted as around 12th century.^[18] In this poem, Freyja rode on her boar Hildisvini to enlist the help of the giantess Hyndla (She-Dog) to find the pedigree of Óttar, her protégé. Óttar here is maybe another name of Freyja's husband, Óðr ^[19].

• Freyja:

"Wake, maid of maids!

Wake, my friend!

Hyndla! Sister!

who in the cavern dwellest.

Now there is a dark of darks;

we will both

to Valhalla ride,

and to the holy fane."

"Now of thy wolves take one

from out the stall;

let him run

with runic rein."

But Hyndla quickly realized that the boar is Óttar in disguise.

• Hyndla:

"False art thou, Freyja!

who tempest me:

by thy eyes thou showest it,

so fixed upon us;

while thou thy man hast

on the dead-road, (i.e. the road to Valhalla)

the young Óttar,

Innstein's son."

• Freyja:

"Dull art thou, Hyndla!

methinks thou dreamest,

since thou sayest that my man

is on the dead-road with me;

there where my hog sparkles

with its golden bristles,

hight Hildisvini,

which for me made

the two skilful dwarfs,

Dain and Nabbi."

Hyndla came with Freyja, riding on a wolf. On the road, Freyja explained her duty, and how Óttar had induced her to help him.

• Freyja:

"A wager was made in the foreign metal (i.e. gold)

Óttar the young and Angantir,

We must guard, for the hero young to have

His father's wealth, the fruits of his race.

For me a shrine of stones he made

And now to glass the rock has grown

Oft with the blood of beasts was it red

In the goddesses ever did Óttar trust.

Tell to me now the ancient names,

And the races of all that were born of old..."

Later, Hyndla gave a very long list of heroes' names as Óttar's ancestors (this is the main part and purpose of the poem). Freyja then confirmed that the boar is Óttar in disguise. She further requested Hyndla to give Óttar a potion that would enable him to remember all that he had been told. But the giantess refused.

• Hyndla:

"Hence shalt thou fare, for fain would I sleep

From me thou gettest few more favors

My noble one, out in the night thou leapest

As Heidrun goes the goats among (Heidrun is the she-goat who stands at Vahalla's door, here used as an insult.)

To Óðr didst thou run who loved thee ever

And many under thy girdle have crawled."

• Freyja:

"Around the giantess flames shall I raise

So that forth unburned thou mayst not fare."

• Hyndla:

"Flames I see burning, the earth is on fire

And each for his life the price must lose

Bring then to Óttar's hand the cup

Of venom full for an evil fate."

• Freyja:

"Thine evil words shall work no ill

Though Jötun maid, bitter thy baleful threats

A drink full fair shall Óttar find

Of all the gods the favors I get."

[edit] Oddrúnargrátr

Oddrúnargrátr (Oddrún's Laments)^[15] belongs to the myths of heroes. In this song, Princess Borgny called upon Frigg and Freyja to bless Oddrún.

At last were born a boy and girl,

Son and daughter of Hogni's slayer;

Then speech the woman so weak began,

Nor said she aught ere this she spake:

"So may the holy ones thee help,

Frigg and Freyja and favoring gods,

As thou hast saved me from sorrow now."

Frigg and Freyja are the two foremost Norse goddesses, and both are goddesses of fertility.

[edit] Other Sagas

According to the Ynglinga Saga: "Njörðr's daughter Freyja was priestess of the sacrifices, and first taught the Æsir the magic art, as it was in use and fashion among the Vanir. While Njörðr was with the Vanir he had taken his own sister in marriage, for that was allowed by their law; and their children were Freyr and Freyja. But among the Æsir it was forbidden to intermarry with such near relations."

After the deaths of Odin, Njörðr, and Freyr: "Freyja alone remained of the gods, and she became on this account so celebrated that all women of distinction were called by her name, whence they now have the title Frú (Frau in German); so that every woman is called frú (frau in German), or mistress over her property, and the wife is called the house-Frú (Ehefrau in German). Freyja continued the blood-sacrifices. Freyja had also many other names. Her husband was called Óðr, and her daughters Hnoss and Gersemi. They were so very beautiful, that afterwards the most precious jewels were called by their names."

In Egils Saga, when Þorgerðr threatened to commit suicide, she said: "No supper have I had, and none will I have till I sup with Freyja. I can do no better than does my father: I will not overlive my father and brother." In Hálfs Saga, Queen Signy, wife of King Alfrek, prayed for the help of Freyja in an ale-brewing contest. Her opponent, Geirhild, however, had the help of Odin, who gave her his drools as yeast. And so Signy lost.

As written in Harbardsljod, while Odin was popular with warriors, Thor was popular with peasants, but Freyja was especially popular with noblewomen, who expect go to Fólkvangr in the afterlife. Freyja and her husband Óðr represent the common situation of noble families in old Scandinavia: due to harsh environments and war campaigns, the man often goes away long journeys, the woman is left in charge of the house and has considerable powers (as also written in the Prose Edda, Gylfaginning (35)).

A part of the Húsdrápa poem relates the story of the theft of Brísingamen by Loki. When Freyja found her necklace missing, she enlisted the help of Heimdallr to search for it. Eventually they found the thief, who turned out to be Loki who had transformed himself into a seal. Heimdallr turned into a seal as well and fought Loki. After a lengthy battle, Heimdallr won and returned Brísingamen to Freyja. The rivalry of Loki and Heimdallr for Brísingamen is an important event, as they are destined to fight again and slay each other at the end of Ragnarök.

This myth, which takes place at the sea, is maybe related to the origin of Freyja's name "Mardöll" (Sea-Bright), the bright here is maybe the glittering of the stolen Brísingamen (brísinga means "glittering, twinkling, flaming"). In Heimdallr's name, the word dallr (light) is masculine of döll, and heim means "earth" or "land" (cf. Vanaheim, Alfheim). This is maybe one of the lost tales of Freyja's journey in search for her husband (as Snorri wrote: "She has a great variety of names, for having gone over many countries in search of Óðr, each people gave her a different name".) ^[19] In Gesta Danorum is another story of a beautiful woman named Sýr (Latinized as Syritha) seeking for Óðr/Óttar (Latinized as Otharus). Sýr is also wanted for marriage by a giant, who was later slain trying to woo her.^{[19] [20]}

In King Olaf Tryggvason's Saga, following King Olaf Tryggvason's orders, to prove their piety, people must insult and ridicule major heathen deities when they are newly converted into Christianity. Freyja is named among those major deities. The indigenous Norse deities are eventually demonized under Christian rule.

[edit] 15th century account

Written by two Christian priests in the 15th century, the Icelandic short story Sörla þáttr is an attempt to humiliate pagan deities, praise Christianity, and immortalize the Christian King Olaf Trygvason. The story borrows parts of Heimskringla (of how heathen deities are euhemerised), parts of the poem Lokasenna (of Gefjun sleeping with a boy for a necklace), parts of the Húsdrápa poem (of Loki stealing Brisingamen), and the eternal battle Hjaðningavíg. In the end of the story, the arrival of Christianity dissolves the old curse that traditionally was to endure until Ragnarök.

"Freyja is said to be a human in Asia. She was the fairest woman at that time and was the favorite concubine of Odin, King of the Asialand. When this woman wanted to buy a beautiful necklace (no name given) from four dwarves (named Alfrig, Dvalin, Berling, and Grer) with gold and silver, they said they do not lack of gold, and demanded a night with her for each of them. She agreed, but a man called Loki somehow knew the deal, and he came to tell Odin.

King Odin was very angry, he ordered Loki to steal the necklace. Loki turned into a fly to sneak into Freyja's bower and stole the necklace. When Freyja found her necklace missing, she came to ask King Odin. Odin said he would only return the necklace to her if she could put a curse on some Kings to cause an eternal war until the arrival of a great Christian Lord. She said it would be done and got that necklace back.

Under the spell, the Kings fought and slew others but as soon as they fell down, they had to stand up and continue fighting. It is said that chaos lasted for one hundred and forty-three years. But in the end, the great christened King Olaf Tryggvason arrived with his Christian army, and whoever slain by a Christian would stay dead. The evil heathen curse was finally dissolved, and Christianity brought peace to the land. After that, the noble man, King Olaf, went back to his realm." ^[21]

This late work of Christian monks is clearly unoriginal and does not represent an authentic pagan tradition. The Christian priests Jon Thordson and Magnus Thorhalson, who respectively wrote and revised this anti-pagan story, put this line in their manuscript: "May God Almighty and the Virgin Mary bless both the one that wrote and the one that dictated!" The story was later rewritten by some modern people, with most parts altered and removed to make it sound like an original myth.

[edit] 19th century accounts

Rural Scandinavians remained dependent on the forces of nature, fertility gods remained important and in rural 19th century Sweden, Freyja retained elements of her role as a fertility goddess.^[22] In the province of Småland, there is an account of how she was connected with sheet lightning in this respect:^[22]

Jag minns en söndag på 1880-talet, det var några gubbar ute och gick bland åkrarna och tittade på rågen som snart var mogen. Då sa Måns i Karryd: "Nu ä Fröa ute å sir ätter om råjen är mogen." [...] När jag som liten pojke satt hos den gamla Stolta-Katrina, var jag som alla dåtida barn mycket rädd för åskan. När kornblixtarna syntes om kvällarna, sade Katrina: "Du sa inte va rädd barn lella, dä ä bara Fröa som ä ute å slår ell med stål å flenta för å si etter om kornet ä moet. Ho ä snäll ve folk å gör dä bare för å hjälpa, ho gör inte som Tor, han slår ihjäl både folk å fä, när han lynna [...] Jag har sedan hört flera gamla tala om samma sak, på ungefär samma sätt.[23]

I remember a Sunday in the 1880s, when some men were walking in the fields looking at the rye which was about to ripen. Then Måns in Karryd said: "Now Freyja is out watching if the rye is ripe" [...] When as a boy I was visiting the old Proud-Katrina, I was afraid of lightning like all boys in those days. When the sheet lightning flared in the nights, Katrina said: "Don't be afraid little child, it is only Freyja who is out making fire with steel and flintstone to see if the rye is ripe. She is kind to people and she is only doing it to be of service, she is not like Thor, he slays both people and livestock, when he is in the mood" [...] I later heard several old folks talk of the same thing in the same way.[24]

In Värend, Freyja could also arrive at Christmas night and she used to shake the apple trees for the sake of a good harvest and consequently people left some apples in the trees for her sake.^[22] Moreover, it was dangerous to leave the plough outdoors, because if Freyja sat on it, it would no longer be of any use.^[22]

[edit] Receiver of half the slain

Snorri writes in Gylfaginning (24) that "wherever she rides to battle, she gets half the slain" (Faulkes translation). But Freyja and the Valkyries certainly do not actively participate in fights of humans, they just go to where battles occur and guide the fallen to heaven. And though Freyja receives some of those warriors slain on the battlefield, there is no record of how that occurs. Does Freyja pick them herself? Or do Odin or the Valkyries decide? There are no answers to these questions in surviving tales.

It is said in Grímnismál:

The ninth is Fólkvangr, where bright Freyja decrees

where in the hall warriors shall sit:

Some of the fallen belong to her,

And some belong to Odin.

In Egil's Saga, Thorgerda (Þorgerðr), threatens to commit suicide in the wake of her brother's death, saying: "I shall not eat until I sup with Freyja". This should be taken to mean that she expected to pass to Freyja's hall upon her death. Any greater associations with Freyja and death are not supported.

The oral tradition explains that Odin's warriors are "the offensive", or those who dedicate their life to fighting. Freyja’s warriors are "the defensive", or those who only fight to protect their families, clans or goods. The historian Else Roesdahl noticed that a difference between the two cultures in regards to burials containing weapons. In those in Norway the buried warriors had defensive shields, and in Denmark they had only offensive weapons.^[25]

[edit] Possessions

Surviving tales regarding Freyja often associate Freyja with numerous enchanted possessions.

[edit] Jewelry

Brísingamen (Necklace of Flame) is Freyja's famous necklace reputedly made of gold and amber. The necklace is thought to represent the sun's fire and the circle of day and night. According to the notes of Saxo Grammaticus, Brísingamen was among the items given to the gods by Alberich. In some mythological writings, Brísingamen is assigned to Frigg.

In Skáldskaparmál (31), it is written that women often wore "stone-necklaces" as a part of a woman's apparels, to indicate their social status. That is the reason why woman is periphrased with reference to jewels and agates. Frigg and Freyja are the foremost Norse goddesses, therefore they are portrayed as having precious necklaces. Necklaces also seem to be the favorite gifts in heathen times. When Hildr came to ask her father, King Högni, for peace, she offered him a necklace Skáldskaparmál (49). In Völuspá, the seeress refused to talk until Odin gave her some golden necklaces.

[edit] Cloak

Freyja owns a cloak of falcon feathers, which can give her the ability to change into the guise of any birds, and to fly between worlds. It is called "hawk's plumage", "falcon skin", or "falcon-feathered cloak" in different translations. The same magical cloak was also assigned to Frigg in some tales.

[edit] Cat-drawn Chariot

Freyja often rides on a chariot drawn by a pair of large cats. She rode this chariot to Baldur's funeral. These cats are called Gib-cats in the Prose Edda. They are often thought to be Norwegian forest cats.^[26]

Cats are sacred to Freyja, just as wolves are to Odin. "When a bride goes to the wedding in fine weather, they say 'she has fed the cat well,' not offended the favourite of the love-goddess."

She is considered a warrior goddess among her many roles. The chariot also is a warlike attribute and often given to exalted deities only.^[27] This does not mean that every exalted Germanic deity must have a wagon, but most of them have special rides. Odin and Heimdallr have horses, Thor has a chariot drawn by goats, Freyr has a boar, but Freyja has both chariot and boar. Minor goddesses such as Gefjun and Idunn do not even have a palace or hall mentioned.

[edit] Boar

Freyja also rides a golden-bristled boar called Hildisvini (Battle-Swine) which appeared only in the poem Hyndluljóð. Later we are told that the boar is her protégé, Óttar, but it seems that Óttar was temporarily disguised as Hildisvini, not that Hildisvini is Óttar. The boar has special associations within Norse Mythology, both relative to the notion of fertility and also as a protective talisman in war.

In Skáldskaparmál (14), Freyr is described as riding on another golden-bristled boar, Gullinbursti, which may be one and the same with Freyja's.

The battle-bold Freyr rideth

First on the golden-bristled

Barrow-boar to the bale-fire

Of Baldur, and leads the people.

[edit] Other names

[edit] Forms of "Freyja"

• Freyja
• Freyju
• Freja - common Danish and literary Swedish form.
• Freia
• Freya
• Frea - History of the Langobards
• Freo
• Frowa
• Froya
• Frøya, Fröa - common Norwegian, and rural Swedish form.
• Fröe - a Danish form
• Froijenborg - Swedish folk song, in which she is referred to as the fair sun "den väna solen" (Vana: from "Vanir", means beautiful ^[28])
• Friia, Frīa - second Merseburg Charm
• Frija - variant of Friia
• Reija - Finnish form

[edit] Other forms

According to Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda, Freyja also bore the following names:

• Vanadís, which means "Dís of the Vanir";
• Mardöll, which means "sea-bright" (mar: "sea", döll: feminine of dallr "bright light", cf. Heimdallr);
• Hörn, which may be related to the word hörr meaning "flax", "linen";
• Gefn, which means "the giver", is a suitable name for a fertility goddess;
• Sýr, whose translation is "sow", illustrates the association of the Vanir with pigs and fertility.

In the famous Njal's Saga, another title of Freyja is mentioned: Valfreyja, which means "Mistress of the Chosen", "Mistress of the Slain" (cf. Valfadir "Choosing Father" (Odin), Valkyrja "Chooser of the Slain").

[edit] Kennings

Gold is called Tears of Freyja:

Many a fearless swordsman

Received the Tears of Freyja

The more the morn when foemen

We murdered; we were present

Ródi's Roof's great Ice-Lump

For the Rain of Freyja's Eyelids

Grows not less, my fair axe-head;

His age my lord so useth.

I received the Ice of Wed Rims,

With Freyja's golden Eye-Thaw,

From the upright prince high-hearted;

We bear in hand the Helm's Hurt.

Gold is called Tears of Mardöll:

Where, mounted 'twixt the carvings,

The Tear of Mardöll lieth,

We bear the axe shield-splitting,

Swollen with Serpent's lair-gold.

...

The free-handed Lord gave,

The heroes accepted,

Sif's firm-grown tresses,

Ice of the bow-force,

Otter-gild unwilling,

Weeping of Mardöll,

Fire-flame of Órun,

Idi's fine Speeches.

Gold is called Tears of Óðr's Bride:

The shield, tempest's strong roof-ice,

With tear-gold is unminished,

The Eye-rain of Óðr's Bride:

His age the King so useth.

Jewel is called Child of Hörn:

Hörn's Child, the glorious adornment,

I own, gold-wound a jewel

Most fair to the shield's rim

Fast is the golden Sea-Flame:

Gem is called Niece of Freyr, Gold is called Tears of Hnoss's Mother:

On the gem, Freyr's Niece, the tear-drift

Of the fore-head of her Mother

She bears; the Raven-Feeder

Gave me Fródi's seed-gold's fostering.

Gem is called Child of Njörðr's Daughter:

A defence of songs full goodly

He freely gave me, neighbor

Of sea-scales: I praise gladly

Njörðr's Daughter's golden gem-child.

Fair things are called Daughter of Freyja:

The awesome Stately Urger

Of Odin, he who raises

The struggle stern, gave to me

The courage-stalwart daughter

Of the Vana-Bride, my fair axe;

The valorous sword-mote's Ruler

Led Gefn's girl to the Skald's bed,

Set with the sea-flame's gold-work.

"It is proper to join 'tears' with all the names of Freyja, and to call gold by such terms; and in divers ways these periphrases have been varied, so that gold is called Hail, or Rain, or Snow-Storm, or Drops, or Showers, or Water falls of Freyja's Eyes, or Cheeks, or Brows, or Eyelids." (The Prose Edda, The poesy of Skalds or Poetical Diction (37), Snorri's teachings of how Freyja and Hnoss's names can be used as kennings for fair things like gold, jewels, and gems).

[edit] Eponyms

[edit] People

Freya (and its variant forms) is a common Scandinavian female name. In 2005, the name Freja was the fifth most popular given name for Danish girls born that year.^[29] The following year, 2006, the name became even more popular in Denmark, having risen to the 3rd most popular given name for girls born in 2006.^[30] In 2006, the name 'Freya' was the 23rd most common given name for baby girls in England and Wales.^[31]

[edit] Places

Many farms in Norway have Frøy- as the first element in their names, and the most common are the name Frøyland (13 farms). But whether Frøy- in these names are referring to the goddess Freyja (or the god Freyr) is questionable and uncertain. The first element in the name Frøyjuhof, in Udenes parish, are however most probably the genitive case of the name Freyja. (The last element is hof 'temple', and a church was built on the farm in the Middle Ages, which indicates the spot as an old holy place.) The same name, Frøyjuhof, also occur in the parishes Hole and Stjørdal. There are also two islands named Frøya in Norway.

In the parish of Seim, in the county of Hordaland, Norway, lies the farm Ryland (Norse Rýgjarland). The first element is the genitive case of rýgr 'lady' (identical with the meaning of the name Freyja, see above). Since the neighbouring farms have the names Hopland (Norse Hofland 'temple land') and Totland (Norse Þórsland 'Thor's land') it is possible that rýgr (lady) here are referring to a goddess. (And in that case most probably Freyja.) A sideform of the word (rýgja) may occur in the name of the Norwegian municipality Rygge.

There's Horn in Iceland and Hoorn in Holland, various places in the German lands are called Freiburg (burg meaning something like settlement).

[edit] Plants

Several plants were named after Freyja, such as Freyja's tears and Freyja's hair (Polygala vulgaris), but after the introduction of Christianity, they were renamed after the Virgin Mary, suggesting her closest homologue in Christianity.^[32]

[edit] Friday

The name Friday comes from the Old English frigedæg, meaning the day of Frige the Anglo-Saxon form of Frigg, a West Germanic translation of Latin dies Veneris, "day (of the planet) Venus."

However, in most Germanic languages the day is named after Freyja—such as Frīatag in Old High German, Freitag in Modern German, Freyjudagr in Old Norse, Vrijdag in Dutch, Fredag in Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish—but Freyja and Frigg are frequently identified with each other.

[edit] Misc

The chemical element Vanadium is named after Freyja via her alternative name Vanadís. The Orion constellation was called Frigg's distaff or Freyja's distaff.^[32]

[edit] Homologues

Freyja might be considered the counterpart of Venus and Aphrodite, although she has a combination of attributes no known goddess possesses in the mythology of any other ancient Indo-European people and might be regarded as closer to the Mesopotamian Ishtar as being involved in both love and war. It is also sometimes thought that she is the most direct mythological descendant from Nerthus.^[33]

Nerthus, main goddess of the Angles, is identified with Niærth or Njörðr, main god of some Scandinavian tribes. The first name is the exact older linguistical stage of the latter. Niorðr is married to his own sister; they have a son Freyr and a daughter Freyja, who in later times inherits the place of the parents. This secondary pair of deities as an "emanation" of the first.^[34] Like Freyja's chariot, the early Germanic goddess Nerthus was also often described as riding a wagon.

Britt-Mari Näsström posits in her "Freyja: the Great Goddess of the North" that there is a tenable connection from Freyja to other Goddesses worshiped along the migration path of the Indo-Europeans who consistently appeared with either one or two cats/lions as companions, usually in the war Goddess aspect but occasionally also as a love Goddess. These would include: Durga, Ereshkegal, Sekhmet, Menhit, Bast, Anat, Asherah, Nana, Cybele, Rhea, and others.^[35]

[edit] Freyja in Modern Culture

[edit] Der Ring des Nibelungen

Freyja, in her German variant name "Freia", appears in Richard Wagner's massive opera cycle, Der Ring des Nibelungen which includes Das Rheingold, Die Walküre, Siegfried, and Götterdämmerung. This has led to many portrayals based on Wagner's interpretation, although some are closer to pre-Wagnerian models. Since Wagner's time, numerous depictions and references have entered popular culture to varying extents. In Wagner's depiction, Freyja is Frigg's sister. She is the goddess of beauty who guards the golden apples. When she was captured by two giants Fasolt and Fafnir, the gods quickly became old and ugly, and Odin had to pay the giants a hefty ransom including the Tarnhelm and the Ring of the Nibelung which he robbed from Alberich to get her back.

[edit] Sagan om Valhalla

Freyja (in her common Swedish name "Freja") is the central character of Johanne Hildebrandt's book trilogy "Sagan om Valhalla", a fictional account of how Norse mythology took shape. In the novels the gods are ordinary people, their characters built with the myths as inspiration. Freja has a passionate love affair with Thor (although the myths never suggest that the two were lovers), but their love is doomed, as their people are at war with each other. The Freja of the books is a mighty priestess who can foretell the future, heal the sick and aid warriors in battle. She and Thor are the parents of Idun, which they were not in the myths.

[edit] Influence in Christmas traditions

Christian beliefs combined with existing pagan feasts and winter rituals to create many long-standing traditions of Christmas celebrations. For example, ancient Europeans believed that the mistletoe plant held magic powers to bestow life and fertility, to bring about peace, and to protect against disease. Northern Europeans associated the plant with the Norse goddess of love, Freyja, and developed the custom of kissing underneath mistletoe branches. Christians incorporated this custom into their Christmas celebrations, and kissing under a mistletoe branch eventually became a part of secular Christmas tradition.^[36]

[edit] Potential connections

[edit] Frigg

Main article: Frigg#Connection_between_Frigg_and_Freyja

Frigg is the highest goddess of the Æsir, while Freyja is the highest goddess of the Vanir. Many arguments have been made both for and against the idea that Frigg and Freyja are really the same goddess, avatars of one another.^[37] Some arguments are based on linguistic analysis, others on the fact that Freyja wasn't known in southern Germany, only in the north, and in some places the two goddesses were considered to be the same, while in others they were considered to be different.^[38]

[edit] Gefjun

Main article: Gefjun#Possible_connections_with_Frigg_and_Freyja

Some modern scholars think that the minor goddess Gefjun is an avatar of Frigg or Freyja because of their many similarities.^[39]

[edit] Gullveig

Main article: Gullveig#Speculation_and_hypotheses

Due to a number of similarities, a hypothesis supported by Gabriel Turville-Petre^[40] is that Gullveig, a seeress mentioned in Völuspá is another name for Freyja.

[edit] References

• Davidson, H. R. Ellis (1965). Gods and Myths of Northern Europe. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0140136272.
• Faulkes, Anthony (trans.) (1987). Edda (Snorri Sturluson). Everyman. ISBN 0-460-87616-3.
• Hollander, Lee M. (trans.) (1991). Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway (Snorri Sturluson). University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0292730618.
• Larrington, Carolyne (trans.) (1996). The Poetic Edda. Oxford World's Classics. ISBN 0-19-283946-2.
• Scudder, Bernard (trans.) (2005). Egil's Saga. Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0140447705.
• de Vries, Jan. Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte, 2nd Edition (a seminal work of reference on Germanic and Scandinavian religion).

[edit] Notes

[edit] See also

• Blót
• List of women warriors in folklore, literature, and popular culture

<tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;width:100%;font-size:95%;">List of Norse gods • Æsir • Vanir • Giants • Elves (Light Elves • Dark Elves) • Dwarves • Troll • Valkyries • Einherjar • Norns • Odin • Thor • Freyr • Freyja • Frigg • Heimdall • Loki • Baldr • Týr • Yggdrasil • Ginnungagap • Ragnarök</td><td rowspan="3" style="vertical-align:middle; padding-left:7px; width:0%;"></td></tr><tr><th style="white-space:nowrap;background:#ddddff;text-align:right;">Sources</th><td colspan="1" style="text-align:left;width:100%;font-size:95%;background:#f7f7f7;">Poetic Edda • Prose Edda • The Sagas • Volsung Cycle • Tyrfing Cycle • Rune stones • Old Norse language • Orthography • Later influence </td></tr><tr><th style="white-space:nowrap;background:#ddddff;text-align:right;">Society</th><td colspan="1" style="text-align:left;width:100%;font-size:95%;">Viking Age • Skald • Kenning • Blót • Seid • Numbers</td></tr><tr><td style="text-align:center;background:#ddddff;" colspan="3">People, places and things</td></tr>

v • d • e</div></span> Norse mythology

ca:Freya

cs:Freya da:Freja (gudinde) de:Freya et:Freya el:Φρέγια es:Freyja fr:Freyja fy:Frija ko:프레이야 hr:Freyja id:Freyja is:Freyja it:Freyja he:פריה ja:フレイヤ lt:Frėja lv:Freija lmo:Freyja nl:Freya no:Frøya (mytologi) nn:Gudinna Frøya pl:Freja pt:Freya ro:Freya ru:Фрейя simple:Freyja sl:Freyja sr:Фреја sh:Freya fi:Freija sv:Freja tr:Freyja uk:Фрейя vi:Freyja zh:弗蕾亚