Doctor (title)

From Includipedia, the inclusionist encyclopedia

This article is about the use and history of doctor as a title. For other uses, see Doctor.

Doctor (gen.: doctoris) means teacher in Latin and is a contraction of the Greek διδάκτωρ, didaktōr, teacher, from the verb διδάσκειν, didaskein, to teach. It has been used continuously as an honored academic title for over a millennium in Europe, where it dates back to the rise of the university. This use spread to the Americas, former European colonies, and is now prevalent in most of the world. As a prefix — abbreviated "Dr"— its primary designation is a person who has obtained a doctorate (that is, a doctoral degree), which is the highest rank of academic degree awardable. Doctoral degrees may be "research doctorates", awarded on the basis of competency in research, or "taught doctorates" (also called "professional doctorates", because they are invariably awarded in professional subjects), awarded on the basis of coursework and adjunct requirements (if any) successfully completed by the conferee.

In some languages, when addressing several persons of whom each holds a doctor title, one can use the plural abbreviation Dres. (for Latin 'doctores'). E.g., instead of Dr Miller and Dr Rubinstein: Dres. Miller and Rubinstein. In English the alternative "Drs." is also used.

1 The noun "doctor" as a term used in academia and research
- 1.1 Medical profession
- 1.2 Legal profession
2 Use of "doctor" as a title of address
- 2.1 Correct abbreviation of "doctor"
3 Honorary doctorates
4 Other uses of "doctor"
5 References
6 External links

[edit] The noun "doctor" as a term used in academia and research

Throughout most of the academic world, the term "doctor" refers to an individual who earned a degree such as the Doctor of Philosophy, or Ph.D. (an abbreviation for the Latin Philosophiæ Doctor; or alternatively Doctor philosophiæ, D.Phil., originally from the Greek Διδάκτωρ Φιλοσοφίας, Didaktōr Philosophias, meaning Teacher of Philosophy). The Ph.D. was originally a degree granted by a university to learned individuals who had achieved the approval of their peers and who had demonstrated a long and productive career in the field of philosophy. The appellation of "Doctor" (from Latin: teacher) was usually awarded only when the individual was in middle age. It indicated a life dedicated to learning, to knowledge, and to the spread of knowledge.

The Ph.D. entered widespread use in the 19th century at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin as a degree to be granted to someone who had undertaken original research in the sciences or humanities. From there it spread to the United States, arriving at Yale University in 1861, and then to the United Kingdom in 1921. This displaced the existing Doctor of Philosophy degree in some Universities; for instance, the D.Phil. (higher doctorate in the faculty of philosophy) at the University of St Andrews was discontinued and replaced with the Ph.D. (research doctorate). However, some UK universities such as Oxford and Sussex (and, until recently, York) retain the D.Phil. appellation for their research degrees, as does the University of Waikato in New Zealand.

In the US, the Sc.D., which was first conferred in North America by Harvard in 1872, is rarer than the Ph.D.. However, the Sc.D. degree has long been awarded by leading institutions such as Harvard University, Johns Hopkins University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Washington University in St. Louis, etc. At many of these universities, the academic requirements for the Ph.D. and Sc.D. are identical.

Some ability to carry out original research must be documented by producing a dissertation or thesis, often of substantial length. The degree and title "doctor" is often a prerequisite for permanent (or nearly permanent) employment as a university lecturer or as a researcher in some sciences, though this varies on a regional basis. In others such as engineering or geology, a doctoral degree is considered desirable but not essential for employment. In a small but growing number of fields, the doctorate is felt to injure employment prospects by causing 'overqualification' for the job.

[edit] Medical profession

From the nineteenth century onward, "doctor" has been commonly used as a synonym for "physician" in Anglophone and many other countries; this term is commonly used as a title of address for physicians, whether or not they hold a doctorate. The primary medical qualification in the UK and in many Commonwealth countries are the 'Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery' degrees (MB BS, MB BCh, MB ChB, BM BCh or MB BChir, depending on the University granting the award). In the UK the title "Dr" is officially conferred by the General Medical Council to graduates whose names are included on the list of 'registered medical practitioners', a prerequisite to medical practice in the UK. After qualification, medical practitioners may read for the postgraduate research degree of 'Doctor of Medicine'. By convention however, if a practitioner qualifies as a Surgeon he/she will drop the title Dr and revert to Mr/Miss [2]PDF.

In the United States, however, the degrees M.D. Doctor of Medicine or Medicinae Doctor (Latin, "Teacher of Medicine") and Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) are the qualifying degrees. These are undergraduate medical degrees and are equal to the tradational British (MBBS, MBChB) medical degrees. North American students theoretically may enter an M.D. or D.O program with a baccalaureate in any subject. Practically, however, many "Pre-Med" students take their undergraduate degrees with a major/minor concentration in biology and/or chemistry. Most American medical schools expect a baccalaureate degree to have been completed prior to admission to a medical program. However, many medical schools also allow for some students to matriculate prior to completing their baccalaureate degree provided that they have successfully completed at least three years of undergraduate course work. Some medical schools in the US also provide 6-7 year programs for students out of high school.

In American and Canadian parlance, "doctor" is most often used for all types of physicians and surgeons, including internists, pediatricians, psychiatrists, gynecologists, and all other surgical and nonsurgical specialists who hold M.D. or D.O. degrees. Doctors of Dental Surgery/Dental Medicine (D.D.S./D.M.D.), Chiropractic (D.C.), doctors of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M.) or (V.M.D.), Doctor of Nursing Practice, doctors of Naturopathic Medicine (N.D.), doctors of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.), doctors of Physical Therapy (D.P.T.), doctors of Podiatric Medicine (D.P.M.), doctors of Optometry (O.D.), doctors of Psychology (Psy.D.), allied mental health doctorates (Ed.D/D.Ed., Ph.D., DSW) and doctors of Audiology (Au.D.) are also permitted use of the title "doctor" in professional practice and legal settings.

Note, though, that this is not the case in Germany, where a doctoral degree, and the title "Doktor" is only awarded to medical students if they complete a separate research thesis during their medical studies. The status of being a licenced physician (an "Arzt") is quite separate from this and comes from passing Medical Board Exams set by one of the German states (Bundesländer). A German physician who is licenced to practise medicine (passed his/her medical exams) but did not complete a research thesis would consider it inaccurate and even improper to style him/herself "Dr". They would typically write their qualifications in the form (in English): "State Med Exam (state)(year)" rather than the "MD MB BS" or "MB ChB" familiar in Anglophone countries.

[edit] Legal profession

Academically, Law is a doctoral subject in certain countries, the United States and most European countries among them. Centuries ago, lawyers were called "civil doctors," as distinct from the medical doctor and other types.

In the United States, while some lawyers do use the title "Dr.", practising lawyers are typically called "Mr." or "Ms./Mrs./Miss", regardless of whether they possess a Juris Doctor degree or not. This is a convention of the courts, of litigation and of the legal profession generally. The title Counselor is often used in courtrooms in the United States. A Judge or Justice in the United States is addressed as Judge followed by his or her surname outside the court room. In the court room, he or she is addressed as "your honor." Practicing lawyers usually are not addressed as "Doctor." An exception is when a lawyer with a doctoral degree is a witness in a proceeding, in which case that person may be addressed "Doctor" in the witness box.

In other countries such as Portugal, and in most South American countries (Brazil, Argentina, Colombia, Peru, and Uruguay), practising lawyers are called "Doctor". In France, Belgium and Quebec, it is common to use the title "Maître" (literally meaning Master and abbreviated Me). (In Quebec, the title Maître is used in English as well as French.)

Historically, U.S. legal education followed the British model. Law was an undergraduate subject and a degree in law was an undergraduate degree, typically the Legum Baccalaureus (LL.B.) or Bachelor of Laws. This was the basic qualifying degree. People who wanted to teach in law school, or who wished to add to their knowledge after a few years of practice, would go on from the LL.B. to take the Legum Magister (LL.M.) or Master of Laws. The terminal degree in the sequence was the LL.D. or Doctor of Laws. This represents the top law degree in The United Kingdom, Ireland, and throughout the Commonwealth. In the United States however, a course of events led to the LL.D. becoming a merely honorary degree, while law was elevated to a graduate program and its degrees graduate-level degrees. In the USA, unlike the UK and in the Commonwealth generally, all LL.D. degrees are conferred honoris causa as an honorary degree to people of distinction in public life. There is no course of study leading to this degree.

In most cases, an undergraduate degree in the United States is considered a basic foundation in academia, not a professional degree. Engineering is an exception. Nevertheless, as a general rule, an academic program requiring that the applicant earn an undergraduate degree prior to application for admission is considered a graduate program, and the degree conferred after completing that program is considered a graduate degree. The LL.B. degree, as a Bachelor's degree, is an undergraduate degree equal to a Bachelor of Arts or a Bachelor of Science. The Juris Doctor degree became the standard legal degree, to reflect both the graduate nature of the training, and a professional standing.

By World War I, students had to complete two years or 60 credits of undergraduate coursework before admission to law school, this is still the rule enshrined in law in the State of California, though ABA-accredited law schools in the state exceed this minimum standard. Most ABA-accredited law schools require completion of a bachelor's degree for admission to a J.D. or D.Jur. program.

By 1971, the J.D. degree had completely replaced the LL.B. in the American law school. Some schools also issue graduate degrees in law in programs not meant to train lawyers. Loyola University of Chicago, for example, offers a Juris Magister or Master of Jurisprudence degree in health law, for health law professionals who require a working knowledge of law (e.g., to communicate intelligently with attorneys) but do not need to become attorneys.

The LL.M. is a post-J.D. degree and exists as a specialty for practicing tax, environment, or other specialized areas in American law. It also exists as a special case in American legal tradition, as a conversion or adaptation of foreign legal training into qualifications to practice in the United States. Many states, for example, will accept a foreign law degree as a qualification for admission to practice if the degree is supplemented by a LL.M. degree from an American law school. A few American law schools do not offer any LL.M. programs except LL.M. programmes for foreign-trained students.

Some U.S. law schools offer explicitly post-J.D./LL.M. law programmes with the creation of the Scientiae Juris Doctor or S.J.D. degree (Doctor of the Science of Law)(J.S.D. is also used). Like the Ph.D., the S.J.D requires scholarly research and the successful completion of a dissertation.

It is interesting to note than in the ABA Journal, November 2006, an article titled "Lawyers Are Doctors, Too" addresses the question of whether or not an attorney in the United States can call him/herself Doctor. In essence ABA Informal Opinion 1152 (1970) allows those who hold a Juris Doctor (J.D.) to use the title doctor (the article also clarified this right for holders of the LL.M. (Mastsers of Law), but only in the context of such an individual already retaining a J.D. degree (YourABA, September 2007, quoting Informal Opinion 1152.) See also ABA Model Code of Professional Responsibility, Disciplinary Rule 2-102(E). Under prior ethical rules, the use of the title doctor was prohibited as being self-laudation. Some states prohibit attorneys from using the title doctor without clarification since it might mislead the public into thinking the attorney is a health professional. In all states attorneys must avoid using the title doctor in a manner that might mislead the public, such as advertising where a medical malpractice attorney uses "Doctor" in a manner which could cause the public to believe the attorney is a medical professional with relevant medical experience.

In Germany, about one in eight lawyers has a doctoral degree and most qualify via two state exams which entitle them to be recognised by a chamber (Anwaltskammer) as legal practitioners. A Doctor of Law was historically accorded the same privileges as a baron (including, for example, the privilege of being allowed to use the same hawk as a baron).

[edit] Use of "doctor" as a title of address

Those who possess a doctoral degree are generally entitled to call themselves "Doctor", although restrictions apply in some jurisdictions and some situations (e.g., when it would mislead someone to think that they are licensed physician). Dentists, podiatrists, nurse practitioners, physical therapists, chiropractors, osteopaths, optometrists, psychologists, Chinese medicine practitioners and veterinarians are often called Doctor whether or not they possess a doctoral degree.

In the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and other areas whose culture was recently linked to the United Kingdom, the title Doctor generally applies to both academic and clinical environment. "Registered medical practitioners" usually do not have a doctorate; rather, they have the degree of Bachelor of Medicine (usually conjoint with Surgery). Cultural conventions exist, clinicians who are Members or Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons are an exception. As an homage to their predecessors, the barber surgeons, they prefer to be addressed as Mr, Mrs, Ms or Miss, even if they do hold a doctorate. This is first because they have normally achieved another degree - that of Master of Surgery (MCh from the Latin magister chirurgiae) from a university. When a medically-qualified person passes the notoriously difficult examinations which enable them to become a member of one or more of the Royal Surgical Colleges and become "MRCS", it is customary for them to drop the "doctor" prefix and take up "mister". This rule applies to any doctor of any grade who has passed the appropriate exams, and is not the exclusive province of consultant-level surgeons. In recent times, other surgically-orientated specialists, such as gynaecologists, have also adopted the "mister" prefix. A surgeon who is also a professor is usually known as "Professor", and similarly a surgeon who has been ennobled, knighted, created a baronet, or appointed a dame uses the corresonding title (Lord, Sir, Dame). Physicians, on the other hand, when they pass their "MRCP" examinations, which enable them to become members of the Royal College of Physicians, do not drop the "Doctor" prefix and remain doctor, even when they are consultants. In the United Kingdom the status and rank of consultant surgeons with the MRCS, titled "mister", and consultant physicians with the MRCP, titled "doctor", is identical. Surgeons in the USA and elsewhere may have the title "doctor".

In Italy, all university graduates (after a 3 year course equivalent to a Bachelor degree) receive the title "Dottore"; after earning a second 2-years degree "Dottore Magistrale", and after earning their Ph.D. "Dottore di Ricerca". Therefore, Italians thus address each other and present themselves as "Dott." or Dr. even if not holding what in other countries is considered a doctorate. This phenomenon may have been caused by Italy's previous lack of a "Ph.D." degree.

In German speaking countries, all holders of doctorate degrees are appropriately addressed as "Dr X" in all social situations.

In the Philippines, where titles and names of occupations usually follow Spanish naming conventions (gender-specific terms), the femenine form of "Doktor" is "Doktora", and is abbreviated usually as "Dra."

Many academic, research scientist and practitioners in subjects allied to medicine also use Dr and/or their terminal degree after their last name. (Terminal degrees include Ph.D., Sc.D., Ed.D., or Psy.D.)

EU legislation recognises academic qualifications (including higher degrees and doctorates) of all member states. In Germany, a recent federal law (signed by all Cultural and Educational Ministers in accord with the EU law) confirmed the standardisation of qualifications and recognised that non-Germans were also entitled to use the title Doctor if they possessed an equivalent and recognised qualification from an EU member state. Until this Federal Law was introduced, there was no recognised mechanism to prevent administrators in private bodies and and civil servants in public-funded bodies (such as universities) from automatically discriminating between the qualifications of people with German doctorates compared to holders of doctorates from an EU member state. The German university bureaucratic practice of using the post-nominal form, "Ph.D." (or equivalent), to distinguish non-German doctorates can be challenged legally as evidence of arbitrary discrimination and prejudice against non-German nationals (academics). All EU citizens are now "legally entitled" to use and be titled (addressed) as "Doctor" or "Dr." in all formal, legal and published commmunication. For academics with doctorates from non-EU member states, the qualification must be recognised formally ("validated") by the Federal Educational Ministry in Bonn. The recognition process can be done by the employer or employee and may be part of the official bureaucracy for confirming professional status and is dependent on individual bilateral agreements between Germany and other countries.

In Hungary the title of doctor used to become a part of the name and is added as such to personal ID documents. The use of this practice has been significantly declined in the recent years, although legally it is still possible.

[edit] Correct abbreviation of "doctor"

The switch from "doctor" to its abbreviated form involves contraction rather than truncation. In British English it is not necessary to indicate a contraction with a full stop (period) after the abbreviation, while the opposite holds true in North American English. This means that while the abbreviation of doctor is written "Dr" in most of the Commonwealth, it is written "Dr." in North America.^[1]

[edit] Honorary doctorates

An honorary doctorate is a doctoral degree awarded for service to the institution or the wider community. This service does not need be academic in nature. Often, the same set of degrees is used as for higher doctorates, but they are distinguished as being honoris causa. The degree of Doctor of the University (DUniv.) however is only awarded as an honorary degree.

Some consider it bad etiquette for recipients of an honorary degree to use the prenominal Dr unless they are otherwise entitled to do so, but some do so nonetheless. The prenominal Dr is in any case acceptable in formal contexts at the institution which granted it.

[edit] Other uses of "doctor"

In some regions such as the American South, "Doctor" is traditionally added to the first name of people (especially men) holding doctorates, where it is used in either direct or indirect familiar address.
"Doc" is a common nickname or for someone with a doctoral degree, in real life and in fiction — for example, the character "Doc" in Gunsmoke and Doc Holliday. Also, Doc Savage, 'Man of Bronze', a series of young adult pulp fiction paperback books popular among US high school students during the 1960s and 1970s. "Doc" is Marty McFly's nickname for Doctor Emmett Brown in the Back to the Future trilogy.
In Roman Catholicism, a Doctor of the Church is an eminent theologian (e.g. Thomas Aquinas, also known as the Angelic Doctor) from whose teachings the whole Christian Church is held to have derived great advantage.^{[attribution needed]}
The Character "The Doctor" from the popular TV series "Doctor Who".

[edit] References

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